废水工程 处理与回用 英文版PDF电子书下载

1 Wastewater Engineering:An Overview 1

1-1 Terminology 3

1-2 Impact of Regulations on Wastewater Engineering 3

1-3 Health and Environmental Concerns in Wastewater Management 7

1-4 Wastewater Characteristics 9

Improved Analytical Techniques 10

Importance of Improved Wastewater Characterization 10

1-5 Wastewater Treatment 10

Treatment Methods 11

Current Status 12

New Directions and Concerns 15

1-6 Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse 20

Future Trends in Wastewater Treatment 20

Current Status 21

New Directions and Concerns 21

Future Trends in Technology 21

1-7 Biosolids and Residuals Management 22

Current Status 22

New Directions and Concerns 23

Future Trends in Biosolids Processing 23

2 Constituents in Wastewater 27

Sampling 29

2-2 Sampling and Analytical Procedures 29

Constituents of Concern in Wastewater Treatment 29

Constituents Found in Wastewater 29

2-1 Wastewater Constituents 29

Methods of Analysis 34

Units of Measurement for Physical and Chemical Parameters 35

Useful Chemical Relationships 35

2-3 Physical Characteristics 42

Solids 42

Particle Size Distribution 48

Turbidity 51

Color 52

Absorption/Transmittance 52

Temperature 54

Conductivity 56

Density, Specific Gravity, and Specific Weight 56

2-4 Inorganic Nonmetallic Constituents 57

pH 57

Chlorides 59

Alkalinity 59

Nitrogen 60

Phosphorus 63

Sulfur 64

Gases 64

Odors 70

Sampling and Methods of Analysis 77

Sources of Metals 77

Importance of Metals 77

2-5 Metallic Constituents 77

Typical Effluent Discharge Limits for Metals 78

2-6 Aggregate Organic Constituents 80

Measurement of Organic Content 81

Biochemical Oxygen Demand(BOD) 81

Total and Soluble Chemical Oxygen Demand(COD and SCOD) 93

Total and Dissolved Organic Carbon(TOC and DTOC) 94

UV-Absorbing Organic Constituents 95

Theoretical Oxygen Demand(ThOD) 96

Interrelationships between BOD, COD,and TOC 96

Surfactants 98

Oil and Grease 98

2-7 Individual Organic Compounds 99

Priority Pollutants 99

Analysis of Individual Organic Compounds 100

Volatile Organic Compounds(VOCs) 100

Disinfection Byproducts 102

Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals 102

Emerging Organic Compounds 102

2-8 Biological Characteristics 104

Microorganisms Found in Surface Waters and Wastewater 104

Pathogenic Organisms 109

Use of Indicator Organisms 115

Enumeration and Identification of Bacteria 118

Enumeration and Identification of Viruses 126

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) 129

Development of Microorganisms Typing Techniques 130

New and Reemerging Microorganisms 130

2-9 Toxicity Tests 130

Toxicity Terminology 131

Toxicity Testing 133

Analysis of Toxicity Test Results 134

Application of Toxicity Test Results 136

Identification of Toxicity Components 137

3 Analysis and Selection of Wastewater Flowrates and Constituent Loadings 153

3-1 Components of Wastewater Flows 154

3-2 Wastewater Sources and Flowrates 154

Domestic Wastewater Sources and Flowrates 155

Strategies for Reducing Interior Water Use and Wastewater Flowrates 158

Water Use in Developing Countries 162

Sources and Rates of Industrial(Nondomestic)Wastewater Flows 162

Infiltration/Inflow 163

Exfiltration from Collection Systems 167

Combined System Flowrates 168

3-3 Statistical Analysis of Flowrates,Constituent Concentrations, and Mass Loadings 170

Common Statistical Parameters 170

Graphical Analysis of Data 171

3-4 Analysis of Wastewater Flowrate Data 178

Definition of Terms 178

Variations in Wastewater Flowrates 179

Wastewater Flowrate Factors 180

Wastewater Constituent Concentrations 181

3-5 Analysis of Constituent Mass Loading Data 181

Variations in Constituent Concentrations 185

Flow-Weighted Constituent Concentrations 192

Calculation of Mass Loadings 194

Effect of Mass Loading Variability on Treatment Plant Performance 197

3-6 Selection of Design Flowrates and Mass Loadings 197

Design Flowrates 199

Design Mass Loadings 205

4 Introduction to Process Analysis and Selection 215

4-1 Reactors Used for the Treatment of Wastewater 218

Types of Reactors 218

Hydraulic Characteristics of Reactors 220

Application of Reactors 220

4-2 Mass-Balance Analysis 222

The Mass-Balance Principle 222

Preparation of Mass Balances 224

Application of the Mass-Balance Analysis 224

Steady-State Simplification 225

4-3 Modeling Ideal Flow in Reactors 226

Ideal Flow in Complete-Mix Reactor 226

Ideal Flow in Plug-Flow Reactor 227

4-4 Analysis of Nonideal Flow in Reactors Using Tracers 229

Factors Leading to Nonideal Flow in Reactors 229

Conduct of Tracer Tests 231

Types of Tracers 231

Need for Tracer Analysis 231

Analysis of Tracer Response Curves 233

Practical Interpretation of Tracer Measurements 242

4-5 Modeling Nonideal Flow in Reactors 245

The Distinction between Molecular Diffusion, Turbulent Diffusion, and Dispersion 245

Plug-Flow Reactor with Axial Dispersion 246

Complete-Mix Reactors in Series 252

4-6 Reactions, Reaction Rates, and Reaction Rate Coefficients 257

Types of Reactions 257

Rate of Reaction 258

Reaction Order 259

Types of Rate Expressions 260

Effects of Temperature on Reaction Rate Coefficients 261

Rate Expressions Used in Environmental Modeling 261

Analysis of Reaction Rate Coefficients 264

4-7 Modeling Treatment Process Kinetics 269

Batch Reactor with Reaction 269

Complete-Mix Reactor with Reaction 270

Complete-Mix Reactors in Series with Reaction 271

Ideal Plug-Flow Reactor with Reaction 274

Comparison of Complete-Mix and Plug-Flow Reactors with Reaction 275

Ideal Plug-Flow Reactor with Retarded Reaction 277

Plug-Flow Reactor with Axial Dispersion and Reaction 279

Other Reactor Flow Regimes and Reactor Combinations 281

Basic Principle of Mass Transfer 283

4-8 Treatment Processes Involving Mass Transfer 283

Gas-Liquid Mass Transfer 284

Liquid-Solid Mass Transfer 293

4-9 Introduction to Process Selection 297

Important Factors in Process Selection 297

Process Selection Based on Reaction Kinetics 299

Process Selection Based on Mass Transfer 300

Process Design Based on Loading Criteria 301

Bench Tests and Pilot-Plant Studies 301

Reliability Considerations in Process Selection 301

5 Physical Unit Operations 311

Classification of Screens 315

5-1 Screening 315

Coarse Screens(Bar Racks) 316

Fine Screens 322

Microscreens 326

Screenings Characteristics and Quantities 327

5-2 Coarse Solids Reduction 330

Comminutors 331

Macerators 332

Grinders 333

Design Considerations 333

5-3 Flow Equalization 333

Description/Application 333

Design Considerations 335

5-4 Mixing and Flocculation 344

Continuous Rapid Mixing in Wastewater Treatment 345

Continuous Mixing in Wastewater Treatment 345

Energy Dissipation in Mixing and Flocculation 347

Timescale in Mixing 350

Types of Mixers Used for Rapid Mixing in Wastewater Treatment 350

Types of Mixers Used for Flocculation in Wastewater Treatment 355

Types of Mixers Used for Continuous Mixing in Wastewater Treatment 359

New Developments in Mixing Technology 361

5-5 Gravity Separation Theory 361

Description 362

Particle Settling Theory 363

Discrete Particle Settling 367

Flocculent Particle Settling 372

Inclined Plate and Tube Settling 374

Hindered(Zone)Settling 378

Compression Settling 383

Gravity Separation in an Accelerated Flow Field 383

5-6 Grit Removal 384

Types of Grit Chambers 385

Horizontal-Flow Grit Chambers 385

Aerated Grit Chambers 386

Vortex-Type Grit Chambers 392

Solids(Sludge)Degritting 392

Grit Characteristics, Quantities,Processing, and Disposal 394

5-7 Primary Sedimentation 396

Description 397

Sedimentation Tank Performance 405

Design Considerations 406

Characteristics and Quantities of Solids(Sludge)and Scum 411

5-8 High-Rate Clarification 411

Enhanced Particle Flocculation 412

Analysis of Ballasted Particle Flocculation and Settling 412

Process Application 414

5-9 Large-Scale Swirl and Vortex Separators for Combined Wastewater and Stormwater 417

5-10 Flotation 419

Description 419

Design Considerations for Dissolved-Air Flotation Systems 422

5-11 Oxygen Transfer 425

Description 425

Evaluation of Oxygen Transfer Coefficient 425

5-12 Aeration Systems 430

Types of Aeration Systems 430

Diffused-Air Aeration 430

Mechanical Aerators 443

Energy Requirement for Mixing in Aeration Systems 448

Generation and Dissolution of High-Purity Oxygen 448

Postaeration 452

5-13 Removal of Volatile Organic Compounds(VOCs)by Aeration 456

Emission of VOCs 456

Mass Transfer Rates for VOCs 457

Mass Transfer of VOCs from Surface and Diffused-Air Aeration Processes 459

Control Strategies for VOCs 463

6 Chemical Unit Processes 475

6-1 Role of Chemical Unit Processes in Wastewater Treatment 476

Application of Chemical Unit Processes 477

Considerations in the Use of Chemical Unit Processes 478

6-2 Fundamentals of Chemical Coagulation 478

Basic Definitions 479

Nature of Particles in Wastewater 480

Development and Measurement of Surface Charge 481

Particle-Particle Interactions 482

Particle Destabilization with Potential-Determining Ions and Electrolytes 483

Particle Destabilization and Aggregation with Polyelectrolytes 485

Particle Destabilization and Removal with Hydrolyzed Metal Ions 486

6-3 Chemical Precipitation for Improved Plant Performance 493

Chemical Reactions in Wastewater Precipitation Applications 493

Enhanced Removal of Suspended Solids in Primary Sedimentation 497

Independent Physical-Chemical Treatment 498

Estimation of Sludge Quantities from Chemical Precipitation 499

6-4 Chemical Precipitation for Phosphorus Removal 500

Chemistry of Phosphate Precipitation 501

Strategies for Phosphorus Removal 503

Phosphorus Removal Using Metal Salts and Polymers 505

Phosphorus Removal Using Lime 507

Comparison of Chemical Phosphorus Removal Processes 508

Phosphorus Removal with Effluent Filtration 508

Estimation of Sludge Quantities from Phosphorus Precipitation 509

6-5 Chemical Precipitation for Removal of Heavy Metals and Dissolved Inorganic Substances 514

Precipitation Reactions 514

Coprecipitation with Phosphorus 517

6-6 Chemical Oxidation 517

Fundamentals of Chemical Oxidation 517

Applications 522

Chemical Oxidation of BOD and COD 523

Chemical Oxidation of Ammonia 524

pH Adjustment 526

6-7 Chemical Neutralization, Scale Control,and Stabilization 526

Analysis of Scaling Potential 528

Scaling Control 532

Stabilization 532

6-8 Chemical Storage, Feeding, Piping,and Control Systems 532

Chemical Storage and Handling 533

Dry Chemical-Feed Systems 533

Liquid Chemical-Feed Systems 536

Gas Chemical-Feed Systems 537

Initial Chemical Mixing 540

7 Fundamentals of Biological Treatment 545

7-1 Overview of Biological Wastewater Treatment 547

Some Useful Definitions 548

Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment 548

Objectives of Biological Treatment 548

Types of Biological Processes for Wastewater Treatment 551

7-2 Composition and Classification of Microorganisms 555

Cell Components 555

Cell Composition 557

Environmental Factors 558

Microorganism Identification and Classification 559

Use of Molecular Tools 561

7-3 Introduction to Microbial Metabolism 563

Carbon and Energy Sources for Microbial Growth 563

Nutrient and Growth Factor Requirements 565

7-4 Bacterial Growth and Energetics 565

Bacterial Growth Patterns in a Batch Reactor 566

Bacterial Reproduction 566

Bacterial Growth and Biomass Yield 567

Measuring Biomass Growth 567

Estimating Biomass Yield and Oxygen Requirements from Stoichiometry 568

Estimating Biomass Yield from Bioenergetics 571

Stoichiometry of Biological Reactions 578

Biomass Synthesis Yields for Different Growth Conditions 579

Observed versus Synthesis Yield 580

7-5 Microbial Growth Kinetics 580

Microbial Growth Kinetics Terminology 581

Rate of Utilization of Soluble Substrates 581

Other Rate Expressions for the Utilization of Soluble Substrate 582

Rate of Soluble Substrate Production from Biodegradable Particulate Organic Matter 583

Kinetic Coefficients for Substrate Utilization and Biomass Growth 584

Rate of Biomass Growth with Soluble Substrates 584

Rate of Oxygen Uptake 585

Effects of Temperature 585

Total Volatile Suspended Solids and Active Biomass 586

Net Biomass Yield and Observed Yield 587

7-6 Modeling Suspended Growth Treatment Processes 588

Description of Suspended Growth Treatment Processes 589

Biomass Mass Balance 589

Substrate Mass Balance 592

Mixed Liquor Solids Concentration and Solids Production 592

Oxygen Requirements 595

The Observed Yield 595

Design and Operating Parameters 598

Process Performance and Stability 600

Modeling Plug-Flow Reactors 601

7-7 Substrate Removal in Attached Growth Treatment Processes 602

Substrate Flux in Biofilms 604

Substrate Mass Balance for Biofilm 605

Substrate Flux Limitations 606

7-8 Aerobic Biological Oxidation 607

Process Description 608

Microbiology 608

Stoichiometry of Aerobic Biological Oxidation 609

Environmental Factors 610

Growth Kinetics 610

7-9 Biological Nitrification 611

Process Description 611

Microbiology 611

Stoichiometry of Biological Nitrification 612

Growth Kinetics 614

Environmental Factors 615

7-10 Biological Denitrification 616

Process Description 616

Microbiology 618

Stoichiometry of Biological Denitrification 619

Growth Kinetics 621

7-11 Biological Phosphorus Removal 623

Environmental Factors 623

Process Description 624

Microbiology 625

Stoichiometry of Biological Phosphorus Removal 627

Growth Kinetics 629

Environmental Factors 629

7-12 Anaerobic Fermentation and Oxidation 629

Process Description 630

Microbiology 631

Stoichiometry of Anaerobic Fermentation and Oxidation 633

Growth Kinetics 634

7-13 Biological Removal of Toxic and Recalcitrant Organic Compounds 635

Development of Biological Treatment Methods 635

Environmental Factors 635

Anaerobic Degradation 637

Aerobic Biodegradation 638

Abiotic Losses 638

Modeling Biotic and Abiotic Losses 640

7-14 Biological Removal of Heavy Metals 644

8 Suspended Growth Biological Treatment Processes 659

8-1 Introduction to the Activated-Sludge Process 661

Historical Development 661

Description of Basic Process 661

Evolution of the Activated-Sludge Process 663

Recent Process Developments 664

Key Wastewater Constituents for Process Design 666

8-2 Wastewater Characterization 666

Measurement Methods for Wastewater Characterization 671

Recycle Flows and Loadings 676

8-3 Fundamentals of Process Analysis and Control 676

Process Design Considerations 677

Process Control 689

Operational Problems 694

Activated-Sludge Selector Processes 700

8-4 Processes for BOD Removal and Nitrification 703

Process Design Considerations 704

Complete-Mix Activated-Sludge Process 705

Sequencing Batch Reactor Process 720

Staged Activated-Sludge Process 734

Alternative Processes for BOD Removal and Nitrification 738

Process Design Parameters 740

Process Selection Considerations 740

8-5 Processes for Biological Nitrogen Removal 749

Overview of Biological Nitrogen-Removal Processes 750

Single-Sludge Biological Nitrogen-Removal Processes 750

Process Design Considerations 753

Anoxic/Aerobic Process Design 761

Step-Feed Anoxic/Aerobic Process Design 765

Intermittent Aeration Process Design 776

Postanoxic Endogenous Denitrification 780

Sequencing Batch Reactor Process Analysis 781

Postanoxic Denitrification with an External Carbon Source 784

Nitrogen Removal in Anaerobic Digestion Recycle Streams 788

Alternative Process Configurations for Biological Nitrogen Removal 789

Process Design Parameters 789

Process Selection Considerations 789

8-6 Processes for Biological Phosphorus Removal 799

Biological Phosphorus-Removal Processes 799

Process Design Considerations 801

Process Control 804

Solids Separation Facilities 805

Methods to Improve Phosphorus-Removal Efficiency in BPR Systems 805

Biological Phosphorus-Removal Process Performance 807

Process Design Parameters 809

Process Selection Considerations 809

Alternative Processes for Biological Phosphorous Removal 809

8-7 Selection and Design of Physical Facilities for Activated-Sludge Processes 816

Aeration System 816

Aeration Tanks and Appurtenances 816

Solids Separation 820

Design of Solids Separation Facilities 833

8-8 Suspended Growth Aerated Lagoons 840

Types of Suspended Growth Aerated Lagoons 841

Process Design Considerations for Flow-Through Lagoons 843

Dual-Powered Flow-Through Lagoon System 853

8-9 Biological Treatment with Membrane Separation 854

Overview of Membrane Biological Reactors 854

Process Description 855

Membrane Fouling Control 857

Process Capabilities 858

8-10 Simulation Design Models 859

Model Matrix Format, Components,and Reactions 860

Model Applications 861

9 Attached Growth and Combined Biological Treatment Processes 888

9-1 Background 888

Evolution of Attached Growth Processes 888

Mass Transfer Limitations 890

9-2 Trickling Filters 890

Trickling Filter Classification and Applications 893

Design of Physical Facilities 896

Process Design Considerations 909

Nitrification Design 922

9-3 Rotating Biological Contactors 930

Process Design Considerations 932

Physical Facilities for RBC Process 935

RBC Process Design 937

9-4 Combined Aerobic Treatment Processes 940

Trickling Filter/Solids Contact and Trickling Filter/Activated-Sludge Processes 940

Activated Biofilter and Biofilter Activated-Sludge Processes 943

Series Trickling Filter-Activated-Sludge Process 944

Design Considerations for Combined Trickling Filter Activated-Sludge Systems 944

9-5 Activated Sludge with Fixed-Film Packing 952

Processes with Internal Suspended Packing for Attached Growth 952

Processes with Internal Fixed Packing for Attached Growth 955

9-6 Submerged Attached Growth Processes 957

Downflow Submerged Attached Growth Processes 957

Upflow Submerged Attached Growth Processes 959

Fluidized-Bed Bioreactors(FBBR) 961

9-7 Attached Growth Denitrification Processes 962

Downflow Packed-Bed Postanoxic Denitrification Processes 962

Upflow Packed-Bed Postanoxic Denitrification Reactors 967

Fluidized-Bed Reactors for Postanoxic Denitrification 967

Submerged Rotating Biological Contactors 969

Attached Growth Preanoxic Denitrification Processes 969

10 Anaerobic Suspended and Attached Growth Biological Treatment Processes 983

Advantages of Anaerobic Treatment Processes 984

10-1 The Rationale for Anaerobic Treatment 984

Summary Assessment 986

10-2 General Design Considerations for Anaerobic Treatment Processes 986

Disadvantages of Anaerobic Treatment Processes 986

Characteristics of the Wastewater 987

Solids Retention Time 991

Expected Methane Gas Production 992

Treatment Efficiency Needed 994

Sulfide Production 994

Ammonia Toxicity 995

Liquid-Solids Separation 996

10-3 Anaerobic Suspended Growth Processes 996

Anaerobic Contact Process 997

Complete-Mix Process 997

Anaerobic Sequencing Batch Reactor 999

Design of Anaerobic Suspended Growth Processes 999

10-4 Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Processes 1005

Upflow Sludge Blanket Reactor Process 1005

Design Considerations for UASB Process 1007

Anaerobic Baffled Reactor 1016

Anaerobic Migrating Blanket Reactor 1017

10-5 Attached Growth Anaerobic Processes 1018

Upflow Packed-Bed Attached Growth Reactor 1019

Upflow Attached Growth Anaerobic Expanded-Bed Reactor 1020

Attached Growth Anaerobic Fluidized-Bed Reactor 1020

Downflow Attached Growth Processes 1022

10-6 Other Anaerobic Treatment Processes 1024

Covered Anaerobic Lagoon Process 1024

Membrane Separation Anaerobic Treatment Process 1026

11 Advanced Wastewater Treatment 1035

11-1 Need for Advanced Wastewater Treatment 1037

11-2 Technologies Used for Advanced Treatment 1038

Residual Constituents in Treated Wastewater 1038

Classification of Technologies 1038

Removal of Organic and Inorganic Colloidal and Suspended Solids 1038

Removal of Dissolved Organic Constituents 1040

Removal of Dissolved Inorganic Constituents 1041

Removal of Biological Constituents 1043

Process Selection and Performance Data 1044

11-3 Introduction to Depth Filtration 1044

Description of the Filtration Process 1044

Filter Hydraulics 1050

Analysis of the Filtration Process 1057

11-4 Selection and Design Considerations for Depth Filters 1069

Available Filtration Technologies 1069

Performance of Different Types of Filter Technologies 1078

Issues Related to Design and Operation of Treatment Facilities 1080

Importance of Influent Wastewater Characteristics 1081

Selection of Filtration Technology 1081

Filter-Bed Characteristics 1084

Filter Flowrate Control 1089

Filter Backwashing Systems 1091

Filter Appurtenances 1093

Filter Instrumentation and Control Systems 1093

Effluent Filtration with Chemical Addition 1095

Filter Problems 1096

Need for Pilot-Plant Studies 1096

11-5 Surface Filtration 1098

Discfilter? 1098

Cloth-Media Disk Filter? 1100

Performance Characteristics 1103

Membrane Process Classification 1104

Membrane Process Terminology 1104

11-6 Membrane Filtration Processes 1104

Membrane Configurations 1108

Membrane Operation 1111

Membrane Fouling 1117

Application of Membranes 1121

Electrodialysis 1131

Pilot Studies for Membrane Applications 1134

Disposal of Concentrated Waste Streams 1135

11-7 Adsorption 1138

Types of Adsorbents 1138

Fundamentals of Adsorption 1140

Activated Carbon Adsorption Kinetics 1146

Activated Carbon Treatment Process Applications 1149

Analysis and Design of Granular Activated Carbon Contactor 1152

Small-Scale Column Tests 1156

Analysis and Design of Powdered Activated Carbon Contactor 1159

Activated Sludge with Powdered Activated Carbon Treatment 1161

11-8 Gas Stripping 1162

Analysis of Gas Stripping 1163

Design of Stripping Towers 1174

Application 1178

11-9 Ion Exchange 1180

Ion-Exchange Materials 1181

Typical Ion-Exchange Reactions 1182

Exchange Capacity of Ion-Exchange Resins 1183

Ion-Exchange Chemistry 1185

Application of Ion Exchange 1189

Operational Considerations 1196

11-10 Advanced Oxidation Processes 1196

Theory of Advanced Oxidation 1196

Technologies Used to Produce Hydroxyl Radicals (HO ) 1197

Applications 1200

Operational Problems 1202

11-11 Distillation 1202

Distillation Processes 1202

Disposal of Concentrated Waste 1205

12 Disinfection Processes 1217

12-2 Disinfection Theory 1219

12-1 Regulatory Requirements for Wastewater Disinfection 1219

Characteristics of an Ideal Disinfectant 1220

Disinfection Methods and Means 1220

Mechanisms of Disinfectants 1223

Factors Influencing the Action of Disinfectants 1223

12-3 Disinfection with Chlorine 1231

Characteristics of Chlorine Compounds 1231

Chemistry of Chlorine Compounds 1234

Breakpoint Reaction with Chlorine 1237

Measurement and Reporting of Disinfection Process Variables 1241

Germicidal Efficiency of Chlorine and Various Chlorine Compounds 1242

Factors That Affect Disinfection Efficiency of Chlorine 1244

Modeling the Chlorine Disinfection Process 1248

Review of the CRt Concept 1252

Required Chlorine Dosage for Disinfection 1252

Formation and Control of Disnfection Byproducts 1255

Environmental Impacts 1257

12-4 Disinfection with Chlorine Dioxide 1258

Characteristics of Chlorine Dioxide 1258

Chlorine Dioxide Chemistry 1259

Effectiveness of Chlorine Dioxide as a Disinfectam 1259

Byproduct Formation and Control 1260

Need Jot Dechlorination 1261

Dechlorination of Wastewater Treated with Chlorine and Chlorine Compounds 1261

12-5 Dechlorination 1261

Environmental Impacts 1261

Dechlorination of Chlorine Dioxide with Sulfur Dioxide 1264

12-6 Design of Chlorination and Dechlorination Facilities 1264

Sizing Chlorination Facilities 1264

Application Flow Diagrams 1266

Dosage Control 1269

Injection and Initial Mixing 1270

Chlorine Contact Basin Design 1270

Chlorine Residual Measurement 1283

Chlorine Storage Facilities 1284

Chlorine Containment Facilities 1284

12-7 Disinfection with Ozone 1286

Dechlorination Facilities 1286

Ozone Properties 1287

Ozone Chemistry 1287

Ozone Disinfection Systems Components 1288

Effectiveness of Ozone as a Disinfectant 1290

Modeling the Ozone Disinfection Process 1290

Required Ozone Dosages for Disinfection 1293

Byproduct Formation and Control 1293

Environmental Impacts of Using Ozone 1295

Other Benefits of Using Ozone 1295

12-8 Other Chemical Disinfection Methods 1295

Peracetic Acid 1295

Ozone/Hydrogen Peroxide(Peroxone) 1297

Combined Chemical Disinfection Processes 1297

Source of UV Radiation 1298

12-9 Ultraviolet(UV)Radiation Disinfection 1298

UV Disinfection System Components and Configurations 1301

Germicidal Effectiveness of UV Radiation 1304

Modeling the UV Disinfection Process 1309

Estimating UV Dose 1311

Ultraviolet Disinfection Guidelines 1316

Selection and Sizing of a UV Disinfection System 1324

Troubleshooting UV Disinfection Systems 1326

Environmental Impacts of UV Radiation Disinfection 1329

2-10 Comparison of Alternative Disinfection Technologies 1329

Germicidal Effectiveness 1330

Advantages and Disadvantages 1330

13 Water Reuse 1345

13-1 Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse:An Introduction 1347

Definition of Terms 1347

The Role of Water Recycling in the Hydrologic Cycle 1347

Historical Perspective 1349

Wastewater Reuse Applications 1351

Need for Water Reuse 1354

13-2 Public Health and Environmental Issues in Water Reuse 1356

Constituents in Reclaimed Water 1356

Public Health Issues 1358

Environmental Issues 1358

The Evolution of Water Reuse Guidelines in the United States 1358

Water Reclamation Criteria in Other Countries 1362

What Level of Treatment Is Necessary? 1365

Risk Assessment 1366

13-3 Introduction to Risk Assessment 1366

Risk Management 1372

Ecological Risk Assessment 1373

Risk Assessment for Water Reuse 1373

Limitations in Risk Assessment for Water Reuse 1374

13-4 Water Reclamation Technologies 1376

Constituent Removal Technologies 1376

Conventional Wastewater Treatment Process Flow Diagrams for Water Reclamation 1377

Advanced Wastewater Treatment Process Flow Diagrams 1379

Performance Expectations for Water Reclamation Processes 1379

Predicting the Performance of Treatment Process Combinations 1387

13-5 Storage of Reclaimed Water 1391

Treatment Process Reliability 1391

Need for Storage 1392

Meeting Water Quality Discharge Requirements 1392

Operation of Storage Reservoirs 1393

Problems Involved with Storage of Reclaimed Water 1397

Management Strategies for Open and Enclosed Reservoirs 1399

13-6 Agricultural and Landscape Irrigation 1401

Evaluation of Irrigation Water Quality 1401

Other Problems 1410

13-7 Industrial Water Reuse 1412

Industrial Water Use 1413

Cooling Tower Makeup Water 1413

Water and Salt Balances in Cooling Tower 1414

Common Water Quality Problems in Cooling Tower Systems 1416

13-8 Groundwater Recharge with Reclaimed Water 1422

Groundwater Recharge Methods 1423

Pretreatment Requirements for Groundwater Recharge 1426

Fate of Contaminants in Groundwater 1427

Groundwater Recharge Guidelines 1429

13-9 Planned Indirect and Direct Potable Water Reuse 1429

Planned Indirect Potable Water Reuse 1431

Planned Direct Potable Water Reuse 1432

Planned Potable Water Reuse Criteria 1432

3-10 Planning for Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse 1433

Planning Basis 1433

What is the Ultimate Water Reuse Goal? 1433

Market Assessment 1434

Monetary Analyses 1435

Other Planning Factors 1436

Planning Report 1437

3-11 Epilogue on Water Reuse Issues 1438

14 Treatment, Reuse,and Disposal of Solids and Biosolids 1447

14-1 Solids Sources, Characteristics,and Quantities 1451

Sources 1451

Characteristics 1451

Quantities 1454

14-2 Regulations for the Reuse and Disposal of Solids in the United States 1460

Pathogen and Vector Attraction Reduction 1461

Land Application 1461

Surface Disposal 1461

Incineration 1464

14-3 Solids Processing Flow Diagrams 1465

14-4 Sludge and Scum Pumping 1465

Pumps 1465

Headloss Determination 1475

Sludge Piping 1481

14-5 Preliminary Operations 1482

Grinding 1482

Screening 1482

Blending 1484

Degritting 1484

Storage 1485

14-6 Thickening 1488

Application 1488

Description and Design of Thickeners 1489

14-7 Introduction to Stabilization 1499

14-8 Alkaline Stabilization 1500

Chemical Reactions in Lime Stabilization 1500

Heat Generation 1502

Application of Alkaline Stabilization Processes 1502

14-9 Anaerobic Digestion 1505

Process Fundamentals 1506

Description of Mesophilic Anaerobic Digestion Processes 1507

Process Design for Mesophilic Anaerobic Digestion 1509

Selection of Tank Design and Mixing System 1516

Methods for Enhancing Solids Loading and Digester Performance 1522

Gas Production, Collection, and Use 1523

Digester Heating 1525

Thermophilic Anaerobic Digestion 1529

Two-Phased Anaerobic Digestion 1531

14-10 Aerobic Digestion 1533

Process Description 1534

Conventional Air Aerobic Digestion 1535

Dual Digestion 1541

Autothermal Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion(ATAD) 1541

High-Purity Oxygen Digestion 1545

14-11 Composting 1546

Process Microbiology 1547

Process Description 1547

Design Considerations 1550

Cocomposting with Municipal Solid Wastes 1551

Public Health and Environmental Issues 1554

14-12 Conditioning 1554

Chemical Conditioning 1555

Other Conditioning Methods 1557

14-13 Dewatering 1558

Centrifugation 1559

Belt-Filter Press 1563

Filter Presses 1565

Sludge Drying Beds 1570

Reed Beds 1578

Lagoons 1578

14-14 Heat Drying 1579

Heat-Transfer Methods 1579

Process Description 1580

Product Characteristics 1584

Product Transport and Storage 1585

Fire and Explosion Hazards 1585

Air Pollution and Odor Control 1585

14-15 Incineration 1586

Fundamental Aspects of Complete Combustion 1587

Multiple-Hearth Incineration 1588

Fluidized-Bed Incineration 1590

Coincineration with Municipal Solid Waste 1592

Air-Pollution Control 1592

14-16 Solids Mass Balances 1592

Preparation of Solids Mass Balances 1593

Performance Data for Solids-Processing Facilities 1593

Impact of Return Flows and Loads 1594

14-17 Application of Biosolids to Land 1608

Site Evaluation and Selection 1609

U.S. EPA Regulations for Beneficial Use and Disposal of Biosolids 1610

Design Loading Rates 1613

Application Methods 1617

Application to Dedicated Lands 1619

Landfilling 1621

14-18 Biosolids Conveyance and Storage 1621

Conveyance Methods 1622

Storage 1622

15 Issues Related to Treatment-Plant Performance 1633

15-1 Need for Upgrading Treatment-Plant Performance 1634

Meeting Current and Future Needs 1634

Meeting More Stringent Discharge Requirements 1635

Discharge Limits for Wastewater Treatment Plants 1635

15-2 Treatment Process Reliability and Selection of Design Values 1636

Variability in Wastewater Treatment 1636

Selection of Process Design Parameters to Meet Discharge Permit Limits 1640

Performance of Combined Processes 1647

Development of Input-Output Data 1649

15-3 Odor Management 1650

Types of Odors 1650

Sources of Odors 1650

Movement of Odors from Wastewater Treatment Facilities 1654

Strategies for Odor Management 1654

Odor-Treatment Methods 1658

Selection and Design of Odor-Control Facilities 1668

Design Considerations for Chemical Scrubbers 1668

Design Considerations for Odor-Control Biofilters 1670

15-4 Introduction to Automatic Process Control 1677

Process Disturbances 1678

Control Systems for Wastewater Treatment Plants 1679

Control Algorithms 1682

Process Control Diagrams 1690

Description of Automatic Control System Elements 1693

15-5 Energy Efficiency in Wastewater Treatment 1703

Overview of the Use of Electricity in Wastewater Treatment 1704

Measures for Improving Energy Efficiency 1705

15-6 Upgrading Wastewater Treatment-Plant Performance 1708

Process Optimization 1708

Upgrading Existing Wastewater Treatment Facilities 1712

Process Design Considerations for Liquid Streams 1721

Process Design Considerations for Solids Processing 1721

15-7 Important Design Considerations for New Wastewater Treatment Plants 1721

Odor Control 1723

Appendixes 1729

A Conversion Factors 1729

B Physical Properties of Selected Gases and the Composition of Air 1737

C Physical Properties of Water 1741

D Solubility of Dissolved Oxygen in Water as a Function of Salinity and Barometric Pressure 1745

E MPN Tables and Their Use 1749

F Carbonate Equilibrium 1753

G Moody Diagrams for the Analysis of Flow in Pipes 1757

Indexes 1759

Name Index 1759

Subject Index 1771