生态学 原理与应用 英文本PDF电子书下载

Preface 1

Contents 1

Chapter 1 Introduction 2

1.1 What is ecology? 2

1.2 The nature of ecology 3

1.3 The study of ecology 3

Chapter 2 The individual 5

2.1 Why look at individuals in ecology? 5

2.2 Autotrophs and heterotrophs 5

2.2.1 Terms associated with heterotrophic nutrition 5

2.2.2 Ingestion by heterotrophs 6

2.3 Metabolic rate 7

2.4.1 Size 9

2.4.2 Life style 9

2.5 Size determines more than metabolic rate 10

2.6.1 Assimilation efficiency 11

2.6 2 Production and respiration 11

2.6 Energy budgets 11

2.6.3 Allocation to reproduction 12

2.6.4 Drawing up a complete energy budget 12

2.7 Distinguishing between growth and reproduction 13

Chapter 3 Autecology 16

3.1 The meaning of autecology 16

3.2 The autecology of bracken 16

3.2.1 The importance of bracken 16

3.2.2 The life form of bracken 17

3.2 3 Anti-predator mechanisms 18

2.4 Factors affecting metabolic rate 19

3.3 The autecology of the European starling 19

3.3.1 Appearance and distribution 19

3.3.2 Feeding habits 20

3.3.3 Roosting behaviour of starlings 21

3.3.4 Reproduction 22

3.3.5 Starlings and humans 22

Chapter 4 Population dynamics 23

4.1 Populations and population change 23

4.2 Dispersal of organisms 24

4.3 Dormancy 24

4.4 The study of populations 25

4.4.1 The basic equation 25

4.4.2 Age structure in populations 25

4.5.1 Life tables 29

4.5 Presentation of demographic data 29

4.4.5 Long-term population studies 29

4.4.3 The fate of a cohort 29

4.4.4 Age at death 29

4.5.2 Population pyramids 30

4.5.3 Survivorship curves 30

4.6 Evolutionary strategies 32

4.6.1 Strategies as shown by survivorship curves 32

4.6.2 r-and K-strategies 32

4.7 Modular organisms 34

5.1 Population growth 37

5.1.1 Population growth without regulation-exponential growth 37

Chapter 5 Population regulation 37

5.1.2 Simple population regulation-the logistic growth curve 38

5.2 Factors which regulate population size 39

5.2.1 Types of regulation 39

5.2.2 Space 41

5.2.3 Food and water 42

5.2.4 Territories 43

5.2.5 Herbivores and predators 44

5.2.6 Weather and climate 45

5.2.7 Parasites and diseases 45

5.2.8 Natural disasters 46

5.2.9 Self-regulation and stress 47

5.3 Patterns in population dynamics 48

Chapter 6 Ecological genetics 51

6.1 The importance of genetics to ecology 51

6.1.1 The source of variation 51

6.1.2 Genetic and environmental variation 51

6.1.3 The role of variation in natural selection 51

6.2 Reproductive systems 52

6.2.1 Formation of genetic variation 52

6.2.3 Facultative cross-fertilisation 53

6.2.4 Self-fertilisation 53

6.2.2 Obligate cross-fertilisation 53

6.2 5 Seed apomixis 54

6.2.6 Vegetative reproduction 55

6.3 Genetic consequences of different reproductive systems 55

6.3.1 The source of inherited chromosomes 55

6.3.2 The consequences of outcrossing 55

6.3.3 The consequences of self-fertilisation 56

6.3.4 The consequences of asexual reproduction 57

6.4 Patterns of genetic variation 58

6.4.1 External influences on genetic variation 58

6.4.2 Founder effects and bottlenecks 58

6.4.4 Ecotypes and ecoclines 59

6.4.3 Isolation of populations 59

6.5 Genetic variation within an organism 63

Chapter 7 Behavioural ecology 64

7.1 What is behavioural ecology? 64

7.2 Optimisation theory 64

7.3 Optimal foraging 64

7.3.1 Optimal foraging in crows 64

7.3.2 Foraging in African elephants 65

7.3.3 Optimal foraging in plants 66

7.4 Growth versus reproduction 68

7.5 Reproducing only once versus reproducing several times 68

7.6.2 Which sex looks after the offspring? 69

7.6 Parental care 69

7.6.1 Offspring size 69

7.7 Breeding systems in plants 70

7.8 Alternative strategies 71

7.9 Games theory 72

7.10 Constraints on adaptation 74

7.10.1 Time lags 75

7.10.2 Historical constraints 75

7.10.3 Lack of genetic variation 76

8.2.1 Less risk of predation 77

8.2 The advantages of group living 77

8.1 Living in groups 77

Chapter 8 Sociobiology 77

8.2.2 More chance of obtaining food 78

8.2.3 Other advantages of group living 78

8.3 Disadvantages of group living 79

8.4 Optimal group size 80

8.5 Evolution of helping behaviour 80

8.5.1 Kin selection 80

8.5.2 Reciprocal altruism 81

8.6.1 Termites 83

8.6 The unit of selection and social behaviour 83

8.5.3 Group selection 83

8.6.2 Army ants 84

8.6.3 Lions 86

8.6.4 Naked mole rats 88

8.7 Human sociobiology 89

8.7.1 Parental investment in the iater mediaeval Portuguese nobility 90

8.7.2 Helping behaviour in humans 91

Chapter 9 The environment 92

9.1 What is the environment? 92

9.2.2 Geology and soil 93

9.2.1 The composition ofthe physical environment 93

9.2 The physical environment 93

9.2.3 Topography 96

9.2.4 Latitudinal light and temperature variation 97

9.2.5 Climate and weather 97

9.2.6 Catastrophes 101

9.3 The biotic environment 101

9.3.1 Types of interaction 101

9.3.2 Intraspecific relationships(within species) 101

9.3.3 Interspecific relationships(between species) 102

9.4.2 Pathogens and climate 103

9.4.1 The complexity of the environment 103

9.4 Biotic and abiotic interactions 103

9.4.3 Abiotic effects on competition 104

Chapter 10 Habitats and niches 106

10.1 Habitats 106

10.2 Niches 106

10.2.1 Determining niches 106

10.2.2 Each species has its own unique niche 108

10.3 Gause's competitive exclusion principle 110

10.4 Species coexistence 112

1O.4.1 Size ratios in closely related species 112

10.5 Fundamental and realised niches 113

10.4.2 Niche overlap and species coexistence 113

10.6 Resource partitioning 114

10.7 Character displacement 116

10.8 Interspecific competition in natural communities 116

10.9 Do plants need niches? 118

10.10 Community structure of fish on coral reefs 119

Chapter 11 Trophic levels 120

11.1 Why study trophiclevels? 120

11.2 Autotrophs 120

11.2.1 Photoautotrophs 120

11.2.2 Chemoautotrophs 121

11.3 Decomposers 122

11.3.1 Decomposition on the forest floor 123

11.3.2 Decomposition of dead plant matter 124

11.4 Herbivores and carnivores 125

11.5 Omnivores 126

11.6 Food chains 126

11.7 Food webs 128

11.8 Pyramids of numbers 129

11.9 Pyramids of biomass 130

12.2 Primary production in terrestrial communities 132

12.1 Energy and disorder 132

Chapter 12 Energy transfer 132

12.3 Primary production in aquatic communities 136

12.4 The capture of light by plants 136

12.5 Efficiencies in ecology 137

12.6 Energy flow in natural communities 137

12.6.1 Odum's (1957)study at Silver Springs Florida 138

12.6.2 Teal's(1962)study at a salt marsh in Georgia 138

12.6.3 Varley's (1970)study ofWytham Wood,Oxford 140

12.7 The efficiency of energy transfer in ecosystems 142

12.8 Pyramids of energy 144

13.1 The pattern of nutrient transfer and its connection with pollution 147

Chapter 13 Nutrient cycling and pollution 147

13.2 The carbon cycle 148

13.3 The greenhouse effect 149

13.4 The nitrogen cycle 152

13.5 The phosphorus cycle 155

13.6 Interactions between the nutrient cycles 155

13.7 The importance of nutrient availability 156

13.7.1 The response of organisms to nutrient availability 156

13.7.2 China clay waste tips 157

13.8.1 Different forms of pollution 158

13.8 Pollution 158

13.7.3 Nutrient cycling in tropical forests 158

13.8.2 Eutrophication 159

13.8.3 Heavy metal toxicity 160

13.8.4 Alkaline wastes 161

13.8.5 Acid rain 161

13.8.6 Pesticides 163

13.8.7 CFCs and the ozone layer 165

13.8.8 Radioactivity 166

14.1.2 Recognition of communities 168

14.2.1 The investigation of communities 168

14.2 The structure of communities 168

14.1.1 Definitions 168

14.1 The community concept 168

Chapter 14 Communities 168

14.2.2 Oak woodland communities 169

14.2.3 Marine rock pools 172

14.2.4 Mammalian gut communities 174

14.3 Global distribution of terrestrial communities 178

14.4 Patterns of diversity 181

14.4.1 Global diversity 181

14.4.2 Species richness in-a community 181

14.4.3 Stability-diversity relationships 183

14.4.4 The global cline 184

Chapter 15 Ecosystems 187

15.1 The first use of ecosystem 187

15.2 Soils 187

15.2.1 The structure of soils 187

15.2.2 The great soil groups 190

15.2.3 The effect of vegetation on soil-two case studies 194

15.3 Wetland and aquatic ecosystems 196

15.3.1 Water-the important factor 196

15.3.3 Marine wetland ecosystems 197

15.3.2 Types of wetlands 197

15.3.4 Floodland ecosystems 198

15.3.5 Swamp and marsh ecosystems 199

15.3.6 Bog ecosystems 200

15.3.7 Aquatic ecosystems 201

15.4 Inter-relationships of ecosystems 204

Chapter 16 Succession 206

16.1 Vegetation changes 206

16.2 The causes of change 207

16.3 Examples of primary seres 208

16.3.1 Xeroseres 208

16.3.2 Hydroseres 210

16.4.1 Variation in seres 211

16.4 Patterns of succession 211

16.4.2 The end of the succession 212

16.4.3 Diverted seres 213

16.5 Human influence on succession 215

Chapter 17 Biomes 217

17.1 How many biomes are there? 217

17.2 The world's terrestrial biomes 217

17.2.1 Tropical rainforest 217

17.2.5 Thornwood 219

17.2.6 Temperate rainforest 219

17.2.3 Tropical seasonal forest 219

17.2.4 Tropical broad-leaved woodland 219

17.2.2 Elfinwood 219

17.2.7 Temperate deciduous forest 220

17.2.8 Temperate evergreen forest 220

17.2.9 Temperate woodland 221

17.2.10 Temperate shrubland 221

17.2.11 Boreal forest 221

17.2.12 Savannah 222

17.2.13 Temperate grassland 223

17.2.16 Tundra 224

17.2.15 Alpine grassland 224

17.2.14 Alpine shrubland 224

17.2.17 Warm semi-desert scrub 225

17.2.18 Cool semi-desert 225

17.2.19 Arctic-alpine semi-desert 225

17.2.20 Desert 225

17.3.2 Tropical freshwater swamp forest 227

17.3.4 Lakes and ponds 227

17.3.3 Temperate freshwater swamp forest 227

17.3.1 Cool temperate bog 227

17.3 Wetland and freshwater biomes 227

17.2.21 Arctic-alpine desert 227

17.3.5 Streams and rivers 228

17.4 Coastal and marine biomes 228

17.4.1 Marine rocky shore 228

174.2 Marine sandy beach 229

17.4.3 Marine mud fiat 230

17.4.4 Temperate salt marsh 230

17.4.5 Mangrove swamp 230

17.4.6 Coral reef 230

17.4.7 Marine surface pelagic 231

17.4.9 Continental shelf benthos 232

17.4.8 Marine deep pelagic 232

17.4.10 Deep ocean benthos 233

Chapter 18 Biogeography 235

18.1 Species distribution-where and why? 235

18.2 The historic effects of plate tectonics 236

18.2.1 Past continental movements 236

18.2.2 Present patterns of biogeography 239

18.3 Island biogeography 241

18.3.1 The fascination of islands 241

18.3.2 Colonisation of isolated islands 241

18.3.3 The equilibrium theory 244

18 3.4 Evolution on islands 245

18.3.5 Mountain islands 249

Chapter 19 Co-evolution 252

19.1 The different grades of co-evolution 252

19.2 Pairwise co-evolution 253

19.2.1 Generai aspects of one-on-one relationships 253

19.2.2 The ant-acacia example 255

19.3 Diffuse co-evolution 256

19.3.1 Co-evolution between groups of species 256

19.3.2 The mammalian predator-prey example 257

19.4.1 Angiosperm-pollinator relationships 258

19.4 Insect pollination 258

19.3.3 The Red Queen hypothesis 258

19.4.2 The early evolution of insect pollination 261

19.4.3 Orchids and Hymenoptera 262

19.5 Introduced species 263

Chapter 20 Conservation principles 268

20.1 Biology is not enough 268

20.2 The need for conservation 268

20.2.1 The pressure on wildlife 268

20.3 The philosophical basis for conservation 269

20.3.1 Ethical arguments 269

20.2.2 Maintaining biodiversity 269

20.3.2 Anthropocentric arguments 272

20.3.3 The role of ecology 272

20.4 Conservation of species 273

20.4.1 Why do species become extinct? 273

20.4.2 Genetic diversity in rare species 275

20.4.3 Captive breeding programmes 277

20.4.4 Re-introductions 277

20.5 Conservation of ecosystems 279

20.5.1 The importance of habitat conservation 279

20.5.2 Design of nature reserves 280

20.5.3 Maintenance of conservation areas 281

20.6 Conservation of the biosphere 283

Chapter 21 Conservation in practice 284

21.1 The realities of attempting conservation 284

21.2 Conservation of species 284

21.2.1 The golden lion tamarin-a successfulre-introduction 284

21.2.2 The African elephant-protective legislation 285

21.2.3 The tiger-teetering on the edge of extinction 286

21.2.4 Northern spotted owl-habitat destruction 287

21.2.5 Spreading avens-habitat management 288

21.2.6 Partula snails-captive breeding 289

21.3.1 Dif.ferent models of conservation 290

21.3 Conservation of ecosystems 290

21.3.2 UK legislation 291

21.3.3 Tropical rainforest 292

21.3.4 Wetlands 293

21.4 Conservation of the biosphere 296

21.4.1 The greenhouse effect 296

21.4.2 Conserving the seas 298

21.5 What can individuals do? 300

Glossary 303

Bibliography 311

Index 327