PREVENTING IRREPARABLE HARM.PROVISIONAL MEASURES IN INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS ADJUDICATIONPDF电子书下载

PARTⅠ: SETTING 3

INTRODUCTION 3

CHAPTER Ⅰ DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPT OF PROVISIONAL MEASURES BY THE ICJ AND ITLOS 5

1 Introduction 5

2 The authority to use provisional measures 5

2.1 Introduction 5

2.2 Proprio motu use 6

2.3 Transparency, promptness and delegation 9

3 The purpose of provisional measures in general intemational law 12

3.1 Introduction 12

3.2 Adjudication of conflicts between States: the traditional purpose of provisional measures 13

3.2.1 Introduction 13

3.2.2 Preservation of rights and prevention of prejudice 14

3.2.3 Preservation of or return to the status quo/non-anticipation of the judgment 15

3.2.4 Non-aggravation or extension of the dispute 16

3.2.5 Preserving the integrity of the proceedings/preserving the evidence 19

3.2.6 Preventing serious harm to the （marine） environment 20

3.2.7 Preventing irreparable harm 21

3.3 Conflicts between States with regard to the protection of the individual 22

3.3.1 Introduction 22

3.3.2 Protecting nationals 23

3.3.3 Protecting diplomats and other nationals 23

3.3.4 Protecting people in border conflict cases: collateral human beings 26

3.3.5 Releasing crew and the protection of the （marine） environment 28

3.3.6 Halting gross human rights violations 29

3.3.7 Protecting nationals: halting executions 31

3.4 Preventing irreparable harm and the humanization of international law 36

3.4.1 Introduction 36

3.4.2 Humanization 37

3.4.3 The concept of irreparable harm 38

3.5 The relation to the rights claimed and the possible judgment on the merits 39

3.6 Provisional measures and prejudgment 41

3.7 Protection and reparation 46

3.7.1 Introduction 46

3.7.2 Action and abstention: positive obligations in Orders for provisional measures 47

3.7.3 Specificity of decisions about provisional measures 47

3.7.4 Relation to reparation 51

3.8 The beneficiaries of provisional measures and the rights of the addressees 55

3.8.1 Introduction 55

3.8.2 Rights by proxy （diplomatic protection） 55

3.8.3 General interest 56

3.8.4 Third parties' rights and obligations 56

3.8.5 Rights of the addressee States 57

4 Jurisdiction on the merits and the use of provisional measures 59

4.1 Decision-making on jurisdictional issues 65

4.2 Removing cases from the Court's List （docket） to discourage requests for provisional measures 65

4.3 The development of international law and Article IX Genocide Convention as a jurisdictional basis for provisional measures 67

4.4 Armed conflict and CEDAW as a jurisdictional basis for provisional measures 69

4.5 Provisional measures and forum prorogatum 71

4.6 ITLOS and prima facie jurisdiction 71

4.7 The duration of provisional measures 73

5 Assessment of urgency 74

5.1 Introduction 74

5.2 Assessment of temporal urgency 75

5.3 Assessment of material urgency 77

5.3.1 Introduction 77

5.3.2 Material urgency 78

5.3.3 The preventive and precautionary principles 83

6 The legal status of provisional measures 87

7 Following up on official State responses 90

7.1 ICJ Rules on follow-up 90

7.2 ITLOS Rules on follow-up 91

7.3 Follow-up in death penalty cases 91

7.4 Follow-up in the context of armed conflict 95

8 Conclusion 98

CHAPTER Ⅱ THE USE OF PROVISIONAL MEASURES IN THE CONTEXT OF THE VARIOUS HUMAN RIGHTS SYSTEMS 103

1 Introduction 103

2 Human Rights Committee 103

2.1 Introduction 103

2.2 The right of individual complaint: the HRC and the OP to the ICCPR 104

2.3 The power and promptness of the HRC to take provisional measures 105

2.3.1 Introduction 105

2.3.2 The power of the HRC to use provisional measures 106

2.3.3 Promptness and delegation 106

2.3.4 Explaining promptness and tardiness 108

2.3.4.1 Introduction 108

2.3.4.2 Death penalty cases 110

2.3.4.3 Detention and disappearance cases 111

2.3.4.4 Cases involving threats to indigenous culture 115

2.3.4.5 Urgency after registration of the petition 116

2.3.5 Contacting the addressee State with provisional measures 116

2.3.6 Related Rules of Procedure 119

2.3.7 Proprio motu use of provisional measures 120

2.3.8 Withdrawing provisional measures 122

2.4 Decisions of the HRC to take provisional measures: transparency or the lack thereof? 123

2.4.1 Introduction 123

2.4.2 Secondary literature and visit of the Geneva Secretariat 123

2.4.3 Drafting history Rule 86 （current Rule 92） 124

2.4.4 Separate publication of decisions on provisional measures 124

2.4.5 Information in the Annual Reports 125

2.4.6 Information in the Committee's Views and inadmissibility decisions 126

2.4.7 Dividing decisions in time-periods depending on the availabili of information 127

2.4.8 The relevance of discontinued cases 129

2.4.9 No information on pending cases 130

2.4.10 Construing the purpose of provisional measures from the Committee's case law 131

3 CAT, CEDAW and CERD 132

3.1 Introduction 132

3.2 The right of individual complaint and CERD, CAT and CEDAW 134

3.3 Power and promptness of CAT and CEDAW to take provisional measures and the possibilities of the new Committee against Disappearances 135

3.3.1 Introduction 135

3.3.2 Promptness and delegation 137

3.3.3 Proprio motu 139

3.3.4 Withdrawing provisional measures 139

3.4 Decisions of CAT and CEDAW to take provisional measures: transparency or the lack thereof? 141

4 The Inter-American human rights system 144

4.1 Introduction 144

4.2 Right of individual complaint and the Inter-American Commission and Court 145

4.2.1 Introduction 145

4.2.2 Inter-American Commission 145

4.2.3 The Inter-American Court 148

4.3 Power and promptness of the Inter-American Commission and Court 149

4.3.1 Introduction 149

4.3.2 The Commission's Rules of Procedure （2000/2003） 152

4.3.3 The Court's competence 152

4.3.4 Delegation and consultation 153

4.3.5 Promptness 155

4.3.6 Proprio motu 156

4.4 Decisions by the Inter-American Commission and Court to take provisional measures: transparency or the lack thereof? 158

4.4.1 Introduction 158

4.4.2 The Commission 159

4.4.3 The Court 163

5 The African human rights system 165

5.1 Introduction 165

5.2 The right of individual complaint before the African Commission and Court 165

5.3 Power and promptness in the African system 167

5.4 Decisions to use provisional measures: transparency or the lack thereof? 169

6 The European human rights system 170

6.1 Introduction 170

6.2 The right of individual complaint 170

6.3 Power and promptness in the European system 173

6.3.1 Introduction 173

6.3.2 Inter-State cases 175

6.3.3 Delegation and promptness 176

6.3.4 Proprio motu 178

6.4 Decisions to use provisional measures: transparency or the lack thereof? 178

7 The Bosnia Human Rights Chamber 182

7.1 Introduction 182

7.2 The right of individual complaint 182

7.3 The power and promptness of the Bosnia Human Chamber 184

7.3.1 Introduction 184

7.3.2 Delegation 185

7.3.3 Proprio motu use and withdrawal of provisional measures 186

7.3.4 Continuity 186

7.4 Decisions to use provisional measures: transparency or the lack thereof? 187

8 Conclusion 188

8.1 The authority to use provisional measures 188

8.1.1 Introduction 188

8.1.2 Proprio motu use 189

8.1.3 Delegation 189

8.2 Publication and motivation of provisional measures 189

8.3 Convergence or divergence? 191

CONCLUSION 199

PART Ⅱ: PURPOSE 205

INTRODUCTION 205

CHAPTER Ⅲ HALTING EXECUTIONS 213

1 Introduction 213

2 Practice 214

2.1 Introduction 214

2.2 ECHR 214

2.3 Inter-American Commission and Court 215

2.4 HRC 218

3 Relation between provisional measures to halt expulsion or extan execution and the expected decision on the merits 219

3.1 Introduction 219

3.2 Prejudgment 222

3.3 The published Orders of the Inter-American Court to halt executions 225

3.4 Unpublished provisional measures to halt executions 227

3.4.1 Introduction 227

3.4.2 The right to life as such 228

3.4.2.1 ECtHR 228

3.4.2.2 Bosnia and Protocol No. 6 to the ECHR （abolition in peace time） 231

3.4.2.3 HRC and the right to life as such 233

3.4.3 The right to life and the person of the petitioner 233

3.4.4 The right to life and the fairness of the proceedings 239

3.4.4.1 Trial in public and the prohibition of forced confessions 240

3.4.4.2 The right to consular notification 240

3.4.4.3 Freedom from ex post facto laws 241

3.4.4.4 Independence and impartiality of the judiciary 241

3.4.4.5 Rights of amnesty, pardon or commutation and the prohibition to execute persons pending judicial or administrative proceedings 243

3.4.4.6 Right to counsel 243

3.4.4.7 Adequate time and facilities to prepare a defence 245

3.4.4.8 Right to appeal and effective representation on appeal 246

3.4.4.9 Undue delay 247

3.4.4.10 The lack of a written judgment by domestic courts 249

3.4.5 The death row phenomenon 250

4 Conclusion 255

CHAPTER Ⅳ HALTING CORPORAL PUNISHMENT 257

1 Introduction 257

2 The practice of the adjudicators to take provisional measures to halt corporal punishment 257

3 Relation between provisional measures to halt corporal punishment and the expected decision on the merits 259

4 Conclusion 263

CHAPTER Ⅴ HALTING EXPULSION OR EXTRADITION IN NON-REFOULEMENT CASES 265

1 Introduction 265

2 Practice 265

2.1 Introduction 265

2.2 CAT 266

2.3 HRC 267

2.4 European Commission and Court 271

2.5 African Commission 273

2.6 Inter-American Commission 274

2.7 Bosnia Chamber 279

3 Relation between provisional measures to halt expulsion or extradition and the expected decision on the merits 280

3.1 Introduction 280

3.2 Future violations in another State 280

3.2.1 Introduction 280

3.2.2 Obligation ‘to ensure 281

3.2.3 The ICCPR and re-introduction of the death penal through extradition 287

3.3 Findings ratione materiae 290

3.3.1 Introduction 290

3.3.2 Death row phenomenon 292

3.3.3 Life imprisonment 294

3.3.4 Lack of proper care 296

3.4 Findings ratione personae 302

3.4.1 Introduction 302

3.4.2 Indirect danger through removal 302

3.4.3 Threats by non-State actors 303

3.4.4 Extraordinary renditions and other forms of transfer 304

4 Conclusion 306

CHAPTER Ⅵ LOCATING AND PROTECTING DISAPPEARED PERSONS 309

1 Introduction 309

2 Practice 310

2.1 HRC 311

2.2 Inter-American Commission 313

2.3 European system 316

2.4 Bosnia Chamber 316

3 Relation between provisional measures locate and protect disappeared persons and the expected decision on the merits 317

3.1 Introduction 317

3.2 HRC 317

3.3 Inter-American system 319

3.4 European system 321

3.5 Bosnia Chamber 324

4 Conclusion 326

CHAPTER Ⅶ INTERVENING IN DETENTION SITUATIONS INVOLVING RISKS TO HEALTH AND DIGNITY 329

1 Introduction 329

2 Practice 330

2.1 Introduction 330

2.2 Protecting against certain interrogation methods and other ill treatment 330

2.2.1 European system 330

2.2.2 Inter-American system 332

2.3 Requests for information on the health situation of detainees 338

2.4 Ensuring access to health care in detention 343

2.4.1 Introduction 343

2.4.2 HRC 343

2.4.3 Inter-American system 349

2.4.4 African system 350

2.4.5 European system 352

2.5 Protecting particularly vulnerable detainees 353

2.5.1 Introduction 353

2.5.2 Protecting the health and safety of minors in detention 353

2.5.3 （Method of） confinement and protecting detainees in psychological distress 360

2.5.4 Protecting detainees on a hunger strike 363

2.6 Access to health care for death row inmates? 366

3 Relation between provisional measures to intervene in detention situations and the expected decision on the merits 371

3.1 Introduction 371

3.2 HRC 372

3.3 Inter-American system 375

3.4 African system 379

3.5 European system 380

4 Conclusion 382

CHAPTER Ⅷ ENSURING PROCEDURAL RIGHTS TO PROTECT THE RIGHT TO LIFE AND PERSONALINTEGRITY 385

1 Introduction 385

2 The practice of the adjudicators 386

2.1 Introduction 386

2.2 HRC 386

2.3 Inter-American system 388

2.4 African system 392

2.5 European system 393

3 Relation between provisional measures to ensure procedural rights and the expected decision on the merits 396

3.1 Introduction 396

3.2 Status of auxiliary rights 397

3.3 Effective control 401

4 Conclusion 402

CHAPTER Ⅸ PROTECTING AGAINST DEATH THREATS AND HARASSMENT 405

1 Introduction 405

2 The practice of the adjudicators to take provisional measures to halt death threats and harassment 406

2.1 Introduction 406

2.2 Protecting persons involved in intetnational human rights adjudication 406

2.2.1 Introduction 406

2.2.2 Inter-American Commission and Court 407

2.2.3 African system 410

2.2.4 CAT 411

2.2.5 HRC 411

2.2.6 ECtHR 415

2.3 Protecting persons bringing a claim regarding death threats and harassment 417

2.3.1 Introduction 417

2.3.2 Persons involved in domestic （human rights） investigations 417

2.3.3 Human rights defenders generally 419

2.3.4 Peace Community 423

2.3.5 Union leaders 425

2.3.6 Persons involved in land disputes and indigenous communities 426

2.3.7 Refugees and internally displaced persons 428

2.3.8 Detainees 428

2.3.9 Journalists 429

2.3.10 Politicians and govern ment offiicials 430

2.3.11 CEDAW and domestic violence 431

3 Relation between provisional measures to halt death threats and harassment and the expected decision on the merits 432

3.1 Introduction 432

3.2 Inter-American system 434

3.3 HRC 435

3.4 HRC and death threats on death row 440

3.5 CAT 443

3.6 CEDAW 443

3.7 Inter-American Commission and Court 444

3.8 ECtHR 446

4 Conclusion 448

CHAPTER Ⅹ PROTECTING （INDIGENOUS） CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS RIGHTS 451

1 Introduction 451

2 The practice of the adjudicators to take provisional measures to protect cultural or religious rights 451

2.1 Introduction 451

2.2 HRC 451

2.3 Inter-American Commission 457

2.4 Inter-American Coutyrt 461

2.5 African Commission 463

2.6 Bosnia Human Rights Chamber and cultural/religious survival 465

3 Relation between provisional measures to protect cultural and religious rights and the expected decision on the merits 468

3.1 Introduction 468

3.2 Self-determination 470

3.3 Land rights and collective aspects of the right to culture 471

3.4 Moment of infringement-moment of irreparability 488

3.5 Collective rights and human dignity: special status right to culture of indigenous peoples 489

3.6 Consultation of indigenous peoples and impact assessment 494

4 Conclusion 497

CHAPTER Ⅺ HALTING MASS OR ARBITRARY EXPULSION AND FORCED EVICTION 501

1 Introduction 501

2 The practice of the adjudicators to take provisional measures to halt mass or arbitrary expulsion and forced eviction 502

2.1 Introduction 502

2.2 The Inter-American system 502

2.3 African Commission 507

2.4 ECtHR 508

2.5 Bosnia Chamber 508

3 Relation between provisional measures to halt mass or arbitrary expulsion and forced eviction and the expected decision on the merits 509

3.1 Introduction 509

3.2 Mass and arbitrary expulsion 510

3.3 Forced eviction 517

4 Conclusion 520

CHAPTER Ⅻ PROVISIONAL MEASURES IN OTHER SITUATIONS 523

1 Introduction 523

2 Towards the common core or towards the outer limits? 523

2.1 Introduction 523

2.2 Providing assistance in life threatening situations or situations violating personal integrity 525

2.2.1 Introduction 525

2.2.2 Practice of the European Commission on Human Rights 525

2.2.3 Practice of the Bosnia Chamber 526

2.2.4 Practice of the Inter-American Commission to ensure HIV medication outside of the detention context 526

2.2.5 Practice of the Inter-American Commission to call for the provision of humanitarian support 528

2.2.6 Conclusion 530

2.3 Protecting the physical or mental integrity of minors 531

2.3.1 Introduction 531

2.3.2 Children of disappeared parents 532

2.3.3 Children who have suffered abuse from their parents or caretakers 534

2.3.4 Conclusion 535

2.4 Protection against nuclear radiation 535

2.5 Preservation of IVF embryos 540

2.6 Releasing from （prolonged） arbitrary detention 541

2.6.1 Introduction 541

2.6.2 Practice in the Inter-American system 542

2.6.3 Practice in the African system 549

2.6.4 Practice by the EComHR 549

2.6.5 Practice by the Bosnia Chamber 550

2.6.6 Conclusion 551

2.7 Preventing impunity 553

2.7.1 Introduction 553

2.7.2 Practice 554

2.7.3 Conclusion 557

2.8 Protecting the independence of the judiciary in the context of harassment 558

2.8.1 Introduction 558

2.8.2 The practice in the Inter-American system 559

2.8.3 Conclusion 562

2.9 Preserving evidence 562

2.9.1 Introduction 562

2.9.2 Practice 563

2.9.3 Conclusion 563

2.10 Halting the destruction of a work of art 564

2.11 Securing political rights 565

2.11.1 Introduction 565

2.11.2 Practice of the Bosnia Chamber 565

2.11.3 Inter-American practice 566

2.11.4 Conclusion 568

3 Beyond the outer limits? 568

3.1 Introduction 568

3.2 Halting deportation in ‘family life type' cases （not involving non-refoulement） 569

3.3 Protecting freedom of expression and access to information （without threats to life and physical integrity） 577

3.3.1 Introduction 577

3.3.2 Inter-American practice 578

3.3.3 Conclusion 583

3.4 Halting the judicial seizure of assets or other financial measures 584

4 Conclusion 586

CHAPTER ⅩⅢ PROTECTION 589

1 Introduction 589

2 Action or abstention: positive obligations in Orders for provisional measures 589

2.1 Introduction 589

2.2 Positive obligations implied in orders to abstainom acting 590

2.3 Positive obligations on the merits 590

2.4 Explicit positive obligations in provisional measures 591

2.5 Conclusion 593

3 The specificity of provisional measures 594

3.1 Introduction 594

3.2 Cautious phrasing and lack of precedent 597

3.3 Specific requirements found in orders for provisional measures 598

3.3.1 Introduction 598

3.3.2 Concrete provisional measures in various issue areas 598

3.3.2.1 Halting executions 598

3.3.2.2 Protecting the life and personal integrity of recently disappeared persons 598

3.3.2.3 Protecting the life and personal integrity of detainees 599

3.3.2.4 Preventing expulsion or extradition 605

3.3.2.5 Physical protection against death threats 605

3.3.2.6 Protection against mass expulsion 607

3.3.2.7 Protecting freedom of expression 609

3.3.2.8 Protecting a range of rights 609

3.3.3 An incremental approach to specificity: the Peace Community and death threats and harassment 611

3.3.3.1 Introduction 611

3.3.3.2 Preventing forced displacement 612

3.3.3.3 Confronting the paramilitaries 613

3.3.3.4 Official recognition of human rights defenders 614

3.3.3.5 Practical measures for physical protection 615

3.3.3.6 Protecting free passage 615

3.3.3.7 Investigation and prosecution 616

3.3.3.8 Respect other rights 617

3.3.4 The obligation of the State and the Inter-American Commission to provideinformation 618

3.4 Conclusion on the specificity of provisional measures 619

4 The beneficiaries and addressees of provisional measures 623

4.1 Introduction 623

4.2 The relation between beneficiaries, petitioners and addressees 624

4.2.1 Petitioners and victims 624

4.2.2 Individuals or groups 626

4.2.3 Addressees 629

4.2.4 The petitioner as addressee 630

4.2.5 Rights of addressees 632

4.2.6 Indirect beneficiaries 634

4.3 Consent, consultation and representation 634

4.3.1 Introduction 634

4.3.2 Beneficiaries and their consent 635

4.3.3 Consultation 636

4.3.4 Representation and collective rights 637

4.4 Extending the group of beneficiaries, identification and representation 642

4.4.1 Introduction 642

4.4.2 Extending the group of beneficiaries 642

4.4.3 Early warning 645

4.4.4 Individual identification of each beneficiary? 645

4.4.4.1 Introduction 645

4.4.4.2 Mass expulsion 646

4.4.4.3 Protection of Peace Community 648

4.4.4.4 More generalised provisional measures 650

4.4.5 Identification and representation 653

4.5 Conclusion on beneficiaries and addressees of provisional measures 654

5 The relation to cessation, assurances of non-repetition and reparation 656

5.1 Introduction 656

5.2 Provisional measures and reparation 658

5.3 Provisional measures and cessation, non-repetition, reparation: a unison of purpose 660

5.4 A continuum of protection 666

5.4.1 Introduction 666

5.4.2 Halting corporal punishment and the expected obligations on the merits 666

5.4.3 Halting expulsion and extradition and the expected obligations on the merits 668

5.4.4 Health and whereabouts and the expected obligations on the merits 669

5.4.5 Death threats and harassment and the expected obligations on the merits 670

5.4.6 Cultural survival and the expected obligations on the merits 672

5.4.7 Halt interrogation techniques and the expected obligations on the merits 678

5.5 Halting executions and the expected obligations on the merits and reparations 678

5.5.1 Introduction 678

5.5.2 The rationale of the Committee's approach until its General Comment （2004） 679

5.5.3 HRC General Comment on the right to an effective remedy （Art. 2 ICCPR） 686

5.5.4 The Inter-American practice regarding obligations on the merits and reparation in death penalty cases 688

5.5.5 Conclusion on halting executions and the expected obligations on the merits and reparation 691

5.6 Conclusion on the relation of provisional measures to cessation, assurances of non-repetition and reparations 691

6 Conclusion: protecting the beneficiary against irreparable harm 694

CONCLUSION 697

1 Introduction 697

2 Common core and outer limits of the concept 699

2.1 Introduction 699

2.2 Common core: preventing irreparable harm to persons 700

2.2.1 Introduction 700

2.2.2 Protecting the right to life and preventing torture and cruel treatment 705

2.2.3 Protecting cultural survival 708

2.2.4 Protecting against mass expulsion, internal displacement and forced eviction 713

2.3 Outer limits: preventing irreversible harm to the claim or procedure 715

3 Protective measures, merits and reparation 719

4 Conclusion 724

PART Ⅲ: IMPACT OF THE IRREPARABLE NATURE OF THE HARMINTRODUCTION 729

CHAPTER ⅩⅣ JURISDICTION AND ADMISSIBILITY 731

1 Introduction 731

2 Jurisdiction and provisional measures 732

2.1 Introduction 732

2.2 Addressees and extraterritoriality 733

2.3 Reservations and denunciation and provisional measures halting executions 738

2.3.1 Introduction 738

2.3.2 HRC 738

2.3.3 IACHR 742

2.3.4 Distinguishing the ICJ approach to jurisdiction 746

2.4 The Inter-American Court's jurisdiction to maintain provisional measures in matters that will never be brought to it on the merits 748

2.5 Use of provisional measures beyond inadmissibility or beyond judgments on the merits and reparation 754

3 Admissibility and provisional measures 759

3.1 Introduction 759

3.2 The HRC's discussion on the relation between admissibility and provisional measures 759

3.3 Provisional measures and opening a case in the Inter-American system 762

3.4 Exhaustion of domestic remedies 764

3.4.1 Introduction 764

3.4.2 Exhaustion and threats 765

3.4.3 Habeas corpus and patterns of violations 765

3.4.4 Exhaustion and suspensive effect in non-refoulement cases 768

3.4.5 Absence of legal aid 773

3.4.6 Exhaustion, availability of a written judgment and maintaining provisional measures beyond inadmissibility 776

3.4.7 Exhaustion in death penalty cases not relating to the availability of a written judgment 777

3.4.8 Suspensive effect and cultural survival 780

3.4.9 Conclusion 782

3.5 Provisional measures and the likelihood of inadmissibility for reasons other than non-exhaustion 782

3.5.1 Introduction 782

3.5.2 Manifestly unfounded or an abuse of process? 783

3.5.3 Same matter 784

3.5.4 Dayton and jurisdiction ratione temporis 785

3.6 Admissibility criteria and the two kinds of provisional measures in the new Convention against Disappearances 786

4 Conclusion 787

CHAPTER ⅩⅤ IMMEDIACY AND RISK 791

1 Introduction 791

2 Assessment of temporal urgency 792

2.1 Introduction 792

2.2 Immediacy in death penalty cases 792

2.3 Immediacy in expulsion and extradition cases 796

2.4 Immediacy of the risk in cases involving death threats 799

2.5 Immediacy in cases involving indigenous culture 799

3 The likelihood of risk 802

3.1 Introduction 802

3.2 The practice of the human rights adjudicators 803

3.2.1 Introduction 803

3.2.2 Sketching the contours of the assessment of risk for the use of provisional measures 804

3.2.3 Death penalty cases and assessment of risk 808

3.2.3.1 Introduction 808

3.2.3.2 Right to counsel 809

3.2.3.3 Disputes about facts and evidence 812

3.2.4 Non-refoulement cases and assessment of risk 817

3.2.4.1 Introduction 817

3.2.4.2 Assessment of risk by CAT 818

3.2.4.3 Assessment of risk by the HRC 820

3.2.4.4 Assessment of risk in the European system 828

3.2.4.5 The Inter-American Court and mass expulsion 833

3.2.4.6 Diplomatic assurances and lifting provisional measures 836

3.2.5 Health in detention and assessment of risk 842

3.2.6 Death threats and assessment of risk 846

3.2.6.1 Introduction 846

3.2.6.2 Evidentiary requirements for provisional measures in the Inter-American system 846

3.2.6.3 Denying requests for provisional measures 851

3.2.6.4 Lifting provisional measures in cases of death threats 852

3.2.7 Cultural survival and assessment of risk 855

3.2.8 Nuclear tests and assessment of risk 860

4 The relevance of the preventive and precautionary approach 862

4.1 Introduction 862

4.2 The relationship between provisional measures and the preventive and precautionary approach 863

4.3 Criteria for the precautionary approach in human rights cases 865

5 Conclusion 868

5.1 Assessment of temporal urgency 868

5.2 Assessment of risk 868

5.2.1 Introduction 868

5.2.2 Assessment of risk: right to life and prohibition of torture and cruel treatment 869

5.2.3 Assessment of risk: irreparable harm to indigenous culture 871

5.2.4 Conclusion on the assessment of risk at the stage of provisional measures 874

5.2.4.1 Introduction 874

5.2.4.2 Standard of proof and shifting the burden 875

5.2.4.3 Scrutiny and the precautionary principle 876

5.2.4.4 Risk and non-anticipation 878

CHAPTER ⅩⅥ THE LEGAL STATUS OF PROVISIONAL MEASURES IN HUMAN RIGHTS ADJUDICATION 881

1 Introduction 881

2 The practice of the adjudicators with regard to the legal status of provisional measures 882

2.1 Introduction 882

2.2 The legal status of decisions on the merits by the HRC and its relevance to the legal status of the Committee's provisional measures 882

2.3 Systems referring to provisional measures in the treaty text 888

2.3.1 Introduction 888

2.3.2 The treaty texts on provisional measures 888

2.3.3 The case law of the Inter-American Court 890

2.4 Systems referring to provisional measures solely in the Rules of Procedure 894

2.4.1 Introduction 894

2.4.2 Rules of Procedure on provisional measures 895

2.4.3 Pertinent case law on the legal status of provisional measures 898

2.4.3.1 Introduction 898

2.4.3.2 HRC on the legal status of its provisional measures 898

2.4.3.3 The attitude of the adjudicators to frustration of the right of petition through pre-emption of the possibility to request provisional measures 903

2.4.3.4 CAT on the legal status of its provisional measures 903

2.4.3.5 Inter-American Commission on the legal status of its precautionary measures 905

2.4.3.6 African Commission on the legal status of its provisional measures 908

2.4.3.7 European Commission on the legal status of its provisional measures 908

2.4.3.8 ECtHR on the legal status of provisional measures 911

2.4.4 The status of provisional measures: Mamatkulov singled out 912

2.4.4.1 Introduction 912

2.4.4.2 Mamatkulov and treaty interpretation 912

2.4.4.3 Evaluation of the Court's treaty interpretation 916

2.4.4.4 Reference to other human rights systems 918

2.4.4.5 Evaluation of the dissenters' position on the reference to the practice of other adjudicators 920

2.4.4.6 Mamatkulov and general principles of international law 921

2.4.4.7 Evaluation of the dissenting opinion with regard to general principles 923

2.4.4.8 Explaining the reversal 925

2.4.4.9 Evaluation of the Court's explanation of the reversal 926

2.4.4.10 Developments since Mamatkulov 929

3 Principles of interpretation and general principles of law 930

4 Conclusion 933

CONCLUSION 937

INTRODUCTION 941

CHAPTER ⅩⅦ THE OFFICIAL RESPONSES OF ADDRESSEE STATES TO PROVISIONAL MEASURES 943

1 Introduction 943

2 Compliance 945

2.1 Introduction 945

2.2 A range of attitudes towards implementation of provisional measures 946

2.2.1 Introduction 946

2.2.2 Various responses to provisional measures to halt executions 946

2.2.2.1 Introduction 946

2.2.2.2 Explicitly positive response by the State 948

2.2.2.3 Level of compliance by Trinidad with provisional measures of the Inter-American Commission and Court 950

2.2.3 Various responses to provisional measures to halt expulsion and extradition 951

2.2.3.1 Introduction 951

2.2.3.2 Examples of compliance and non-compliance in the European system and under the ICCPR 952

2.2.3.3 Pre-empting the use of provisional measures: speed of deportation 954

2.2.3.4 Requests for withdrawal of provisional measures 955

2.2.3.5 Invoking contrary obligations under international law 957

2.2.4 Various responses to provisional measures to intervene in detention and disappearance cases 958

2.2.4.1 Disappearance cases 958

2.2.4.2 Health and safety in detention 959

2.2.4.3 Immigration detention involving minors 960

2.2.4.4 Separate minors from adult detainees 962

2.2.4.5 Hostile response, but situation of detainee remedied 962

2.2.5 Responses to provisional measures to ensure access to health care outside the detention context 963

2.2.5.1 Introduction 963

2.2.5.2 Ensure access to HIV medication 963

2.2.5.3 Ensure access to health care to survivors of a massacre 965

2.2.6 Various responses to provisional measures aimed at protecting against death threats 965

2.2.6.1 Introduction 965

2.2.6.2 Lack of specificity in response: we are taking ‘the appropriate steps' 967

2.2.6.3 Investigate, prosecute, punish 967

2.2.6.4 Specific measures 972

2.2.6.5 Provisional measures as leverage for those individuals within government that are indeed interested in preventing irreparable harm 972

2.2.6.6 Compliance affer regime change 974

2.2.6.7 Formalised protection program 975

2.2.6.8 Timeliness and specificity of the State's reporting on implementation 976

2.2.6.9 Proactive measures by the State: voluntary precautionary measures 976

3 Stated reasons for non-compliance 977

3.1 Introduction 977

3.2 Disagreement with the （temporart） outcome of the normative process 978

3.3 Communication of the provisional measures and disagreement with the decision-making process 981

3.3.1 Introduction 981

3.3.2 Lack of due process 981

3.3.3 Delays 983

3.3.4 Procedural duration: what is provisional? 986

3.3.5 Disputing the binding nature of provisional measures or the authority to take them 986

3.3.6 Reputation, clear communication, visibility and specificity 992

3.4 The domestic situation 995

3.4.1 Introduction 995

3.4.2 Attitude of domestic courts towards international adjudicators 996

3.4.3 ‘Sorry: we can't comply' 1001

3.4.3.1 Introduction 1001

3.4.3.2 ‘We lack the authority to take measures' 1001

3.4.3.3 ‘You are not being fair: we cannot do the impossible' 1002

3.4.4 ‘Sorry: it is not our responsibility' 1003

3.4.4.1 Introduction 1003

3.4.4.2 The matter is a ‘private problem between individuals 1003

3.4.4.3 ‘It is the previous government's fault' 1004

3.4.4.4 ‘Implementation is the prerogative of the relevant constituent state in thisfederation' 1004

3.4.5 ‘We won't comply' 1005

3.4.5.1 Introduction 1005

3.4.5.2 Domestic concerns including State security and public safety 1005

3.4.5.3 Generally negative attitude towards international supervision 1014

3.4.5.3.1 Introduction 1014

3.4.5.3.2 ‘No foreign meddling with judicial orders or lawfully imposed sentences' 1014

3.4.5.3.3 ‘We don't need outsiders' 1015

3.4.5.3.4 ‘Our own system of protection suffices' 1015

3.4.5.3.5 ‘Dangerous international law' 1016

3.4.5.3.6 ‘We decide how our country should be run' 1017

3.4.5.3.7 Conclusion on domestic reasons for non-compliance 1017

4 Conclusion 1018

CHAPTER ⅩⅧ FOLLOW-UP ON NON-COMPLIANCE 1021

1 Introduction 1021

2 Follow-up by the adjudicators 1021

2.1 Introduction 1021

2.2 Monitoring compliance 1022

2.2.1 Introduction 1022

2.2.2 The gradual approach of the HRC 1022

2.2.3 Follow-up by the HRC on halting executions 1026

2.2.4 Follow-up by the HRC on halting expulsion and extradition 1033

2.2.5 One of the methods of follow-up: sending reminders 1034

2.2.6 Follow-up by CAT 1035

2.2.7 ‘Seguimiento' in the Inter-American system 1036

2.2.8 Supervision and monitoring in the European system 1048

2.2.9 Follow-up on provisional measures under the Dayton Accord 1051

2.2.10 Follow-up as part of the different reporting procedures 1052

2.3 Possible consequences attached to non-compliance with provisional measureswith regard to the admissibility and merits stage 1053

2.3.1 Introduction 1053

2.3.2 Deciding on admissibility 1054

2.3.3 Evidentiary requirements: deciding on the merits 1054

3 Follow-up by other authorities in various inter-State systems of cooperation 1064

4 Follow-up by NGOs 1069

5 Conclusion 1076

CONCLUSION 1077

GENERAL CONCLUSION 1079

1 Introduction 1079

2 The setting of provisional measures in human rights adjudication 1080

2.1 Introduction 1080

2.2 The humanisation of the traditional concept 1080

2.3 The principle of effective protection and the inherent authority to take provisionalmeasures 1082

2.4 Transparency or the lack thereof 1083

2.5 Cross-fertilization 1085

3 The purpose of provisional measures in human rights adjudication 1088

3.1 Introduction 1088

3.2 Within the common core: preventing irreparable harm to persons 1089

3.3 Within or beyond the outer limits: preventing irreversible harm to the claim 1093

3.4 The protection required 1094

4 The impact of the irreparable nature of the harm 1097

4.1 Introduction 1097

4.2 Jurisdiction, admissibility and provisional measures 1097

4.3 Immediacy, risk and provisional measures 1100

4.4 The legal status of provisional measures 1103

4.5 The principle of preventing irreparable harm and taking into account the inequality between the parties 1105

5 Official State responses and follow-up by the adjudicators 1106

6 An ‘ideal' provisional measure 1108

SAMENV ATTING 1111

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1117

TABLE OF CASES 1153

INDEX 1185

CURRICULUM VITAE 1195

SCHOOL OF HUMAN RIGHTS RESEARCH SERIES 1197