西方哲学史从苏格拉底到萨特及其后PDF电子书下载

Preface 1

Part One ANCIENT GREEK PHILOSOPHY 5

Chaper 1 Socrates'Predecessors 5

What Is Permanent in Existence？ 7

Thales 7

Anaximander 8

Anaximenes 10

The Mathematical Basis of All Things 11

Pythagoras 11

Attempts to Explain Change 15

Heraclitus 15

Parmenides 18

Zeno 19

Empedocles 22

Anaxagoras 24

The Atomists 25

Atoms and the Void 26

Theory of Knowledge and Ethics 28

Chapter 2 The Sophists and Socrates 29

The Sophists 31

Protagoras 32

Gorgias 33

Thrasymachus 34

Socrates 34

Socrates'Life 35

Socrates as a Philosopher 37

Socrates'Theory of Knowledge：Intellectual Midwifery 39

Socrates'Moral Thought 42

Socrates'Trial and Death 43

Chapter 3 Plato 46

Plato's Life 46

Theory of Knowledge 49

The Cave 49

The Divided Line 51

Theory of Forms 55

Moral Philosophy 59

The Concept of the Soul 59

The Cause of Evil：Ignorance or Forgetfulness 61

Recovering Lost Morality 62

Virtue as Fulfillment of Function 63

Political Philosophy 64

The State as a Giant Person 65

The Philosopher-King 66

The Virtues in the State 67

The Decline of the Ideal State 69

View of the Cosmos 71

Chapter 4 Aristotle 75

Aristotle's Life 75

Logic 78

The Categories and the Starting Point of Reasoning 78

The Syllogism 79

Metaphysics 81

The Problem of Metaphysics Defined 81

Substance as the Primary Essence of Things 82

Matter and Form 83

The Process of Change：The Four Causes 84

Potentiality and Actuality 85

The Unmoved Mover 86

The Place of Humans：Physics，Biology,and Psychology 87

Physics 87

Biology 88

Psychology 88

Ethics 90

Types of "Ends" 90

The Function of Human Beings 91

Happiness as the End 92

Virtue as the Golden Mean 93

Deliberation and Choice 94

Contemplation 94

Politics 95

Types of States 96

Differences and Inequalities 96

Good Government and Revolution 97

Philosophy of Art 98

Part Two HELLENISTIC AND MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY 103

Chapter 5 Classical Philosophy after Aristotle 103

Epicureanism 104

Physics and Ethics 105

God and Death 106

The Pleasure Principle 106

Individual Pleasure versus Social Duty 108

Stoicism 108

Wisdom and Control versus Pleasure 108

Stoic Theory of Knowledge 110

Mafter as the Basis of All Reality 111

Good in Everything 111

Fate and Providence 112

Human Nature 112

Ethics and the Human Drama 112

The Problem of Freedom 113

Cosmopolitanism and Justice 114

Skepticism 114

The Senses Are Deceptive 117

More Rules Raise Doubts 117

Morality Possible without Intellectual Certainty 118

Plotinus 119

God as the One 120

The Metaphor of Emanation 121

Salvation 124

Chapter 6 Augustine 125

Augustine's Life 125

Human Knowledge 128

Overcoming Skepticism 128

Knowledge and Sensation 128

The Theory of Illumination 131

God 132

The Created World 134

Creation from Nothing 134

The Seminal Principles 135

Moral Philosophy 135

The Role of Love 136

Free Will as the Cause of Evil 138

Justice 139

The History and the Two Cities 140

History 140

Chapter 7 Philosophy in the Early Middle Ages 142

Boethius 142

The Consolation of Philosophy 144

The Problem of Universals 144

Pseudo-Dionysius 146

John Scotus Erigena 148

The Division of Nature 148

New Solutions to the Problem of Universals 150

Odo and Guillaume：Exaggerated Realism 150

Roscellinus：Nominalism 151

Abelard：Conceptualism or Moderate Realism 152

Anselm's Ontological Argument 153

Anselm's Realism 153

Ontological Argument 155

Gaunilon's Rebuttal 156

Anselm's Reply to Gaunilon 156

Faith and Reason in Muslim and Jewish Thought 156

Avicenna 157

Averroёs 159

Moses Maimonides 160

Chapter 8 Aquinas and his Late Medieval Successors 163

Aquinas's Life 164

Bonaventura and the University of Paris 166

Philosophy and Theology 167

Faith and Reason 168

Proofs of God's Existence 169

Proofs from Motion，Efficient Cause，and Necessary Being 169

Proofs from Perfecfion and Order 170

Assessment of the Proofs 171

Knowledge of God's Nature 171

The Negative Way（Via Negativa） 172

Knowledge by Analogy 172

Creation 173

Is the Created Order Eternal？ 173

Creation out of Nothing 174

Is This the Best Possible World？ 174

Evil as Privation 174

The Range of Created Being：The Chain of Being 175

Morality and Natural Law 176

Natural Law 177

The State 180

Human Nature and Knowledge 182

Human Nature 182

Knowledge 182

Scotus，Ockham，and Eckhart 183

Voluntarism 183

Nominalism 184

Mysticism 186

Part Three EARLY MODERN PHILOSOPHY 191

Chapter 9 Philosophy during the Renaissance 191

The Closing of the Middle Ages 191

Humanism and the Italian Renaissance 193

Pico 193

Machiavelli 194

The Reformation 196

Luther 196

Erasmus 198

Skepticism and Faith 200

Montaigne 200

Pascal 203

The Scientific Revolution 204

New Discoveries and New Methods 205

Modern Atomism 206

Francis Bacon 208

Distempers of Learning 209

Idols of the Mind 210

Inductive Method 211

Thomas Hobbes 212

Influence of Geometry upon Hobbes's Thought 212

Bodies in Motion：The Object of Thought 213

Mechanical View of Human Thought 215

Political Philosophy and Morality 216

The State of Nature 217

Obligation in the State of Nature 218

The Social Contract 219

Civil Law versus Natural Law 220

Chapter 10 Rationalism on the Continent 222

Descartes 223

Life 223

Descartes'Method 226

Methodic Doubt 229

The Existence of God and External Things 230

Mind and Body 232

Spinoza 234

Method 234

God：Substance and Attribute 236

The World as Modes of God's Attributes 237

Knowledge，Mind，and Body 238

Ethics 240

Leibniz 241

Substance 242

God's Existence 244

Knowledge and Nature 246

Chapter 11 Empiricism in Britain 250

Locke 251

Locke's Theory of Knowledge 252

Locke's Moral and Political Theory 257

Berkeley 260

Hume 267

Hume's Theory of Knowledge 268

What Exists External to Us？ 271

Ethics 273

Part Four LATE MODERN AND 19TH CENTURY PHILOSOPHY 281

Chapter 12 Kant 281

The Shaping of Kant's Problem 282

Kant's Critical Philosophy and His Copernican Revolution 284

The Way of Critical Philosophy 284

The Nature of a priori Knowledge 285

The Synthetic A Priori 286

Kant's Copernican Revolution 288

The Structure of Rational Thought 289

The Categories of Thought and the Forms of Intuition 289

The Self and the Unity of Experience 290

Phenomenal and Noumenal Reality 291

Transcendental Ideas of Pure Reason as Regulative Concepts 291

The Antinomies and the Limits of Reason 292

Proofs of God's Existence 294

Practical Reason 295

The Basis of Moral Knowledge 296

Morality and Rationalty 297

"Good"Defined as the Good Will 297

The Categorical Imperative 298

The Moral Postulates 300

Aesthetics：The Beautiful 301

The Beautiful as Independent Pleasant Satisfaction 302

The Beautiful as an Object of Universal Delight 303

Finality versus Purpose in the Beautiful Object 303

Necessity，Common Sense，and the Beautiful 304

Chapter 13 German Idealism 306

Kant's Impact on German Thought 306

Hegel 308

Life 308

Absolute Mind 310

The Nature of Reality 311

Ethics and Politics 316

Absolute Spirit 320

Schopenhauer 321

Schopenhauer's Life 321

The Principle of Sufficient Reason 324

The World as Will and Idea 326

The Ground of Pessimism 328

Is There Any Escape from the"Will"？ 330

Chapter 14 Utilitarianism and Positivism 332

Bentham 332

Bentham's Life 334

The Principle of Utility 335

Law and Punishment 337

Bentham's Radicalism 339

John Stuart Mill 340

Mill's Version of Utilitarianism 342

Liberty 346

Comte 347

Comte's Life and Times 347

Positivism Defined 350

The Law of the Three Stages 351

Comte's Sociology and"Religion of Humanity" 352

Chapter 15 Kierkegaard，Marx,and Nietzsche 356

Kierkegaard 357

Human Existence 358

Truth as Subjectivity 359

The Aesthetic Stage 360

The Ethical Stage 361

The Religious Stage 362

Marx 363

Marx's Life and Influences 364

The Epochs of History：Marx's Dialectic 367

The Substructure：The Material Order 371

The Alienation of Labor 374

The Superstructure：The Origin and Role of Ideas 376

Nietzsche 378

Nietzsche's Life 378

"God is Dead" 380

The Apolonian versus Dionysian 381

Master Morality versus Slave Morality 383

The Will to Power 385

Revaluafion of All Morals 386

The Superperson 387

Part Five 20TH CENTURY AND CONTEMPORAary PHILOSOPHY 393

Chapter 16 Pragmatism and Process Philosophy 393

Pragmatism 393

Peirce 394

A Theory of Meaning 395

The Role of Belief 395

The Elements of Method 396

James 397

Pragmatism as a Method 398

The Pragmatic Theory of Truth 398

Free Will 400

The Will to Believe 401

Dewey 403

The Spectator versus Experience 403

Habit,Intelligence，and Learning 405

Value in a World of Fact 406

Process Philosophy 407

Bergson 408

Going Around versus Entering Into 409

The Scientific Way of Analysis 411

The Metaphysical Way of Intuition 412

The Process of Duration 413

Evolution and the Vital Impulse 414

Morality and Religion 415

Whitehead 416

The Error of Simple Location 417

Self-Consciousness 418

Prehension 419

Eternal Obiects 420

Chapter 17 Analytic Philosophy 422

Bertrand Russell 423

Logical Atomism 424

Problems with Logical Atomism 426

Logical Positivism 426

The Principle of Verification 427

Rudolph Carnap 428

Problems with Logical Positivism 432

Quine's Critique of Empiricism 433

Ludwig Wittgenstein 434

Wittgenstein's Road to Philosophy 434

The New Wittgenstein 437

Language Games and Following Rules 438

Clarifying Metaphysical Language 439

John Austin 440

The Notion of"Excuses" 441

The Benefits of Ordinary Language 442

Chapter 18 Phenomenology and Existentialism 445

Edmund Husserl 445

Husserl's Life and Influence 445

The Crisis of European Science 447

Descartes and Intenfionality 449

Phenomena and Phenomenological Bracketting 451

The Life-World 452

Martin Heidegger 453

Heidegger's Life 453

Dasein as Being-in-the-World 454

Dasein as Concern 455

Religious Existentialism 456

Karl Jaspers 456

Gabriel Marcel 458

Jean-Paul Sartre 459

Sartre's Life 459

Existence Precedes Essence 462

Freedom and Responsibility 464

Nothingness and Bad Faith 465

Human Consciousness 466

Marxism and Freedom Revisited 468

Maurice Merleau-Ponty 469

Merleau-Ponty's Life 469

The Primacy of Perception 471

The Relativity of Knowledge 472

Perception and Politics 473

Chapter 19 Recent Philosophy 475

The Mind-Body Problem 476

Ryle and the Ghost in the Machine 476

Identity Theory and Functionalism 480

Searle and the Chinese Room Argument 481

Rorty 483

Influence of Pragmatism 485

The Contingency of Language 486

The Contingency of Selfhood 487

The Contingency of Community 489

Virtue Theory Revisited 490

Elizabeth Anscombe 490

Nel Noddings 492

Continental Philosophy 494

Structuralism 494

Post-Structuralism 496

Postmodernism 497