INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE PROTECTION OF CULRURAL HERITAGEPDF电子书下载

1 Defining cultural heritage in international law 1

Introduction 1

The notion of cultural heritage 1

The values attributable to cultural heritage 3

The expressive value of cultural heritage 4

Preservation of archaeological and historical evidence 5

Economic value 5

To whom the cultural heritage is of value 7

Group or community 8

The nation 9

Humankind 11

The meaning of protection 14

Physical protection 14

Protection in situ 15

Protection of visibility and accessibility 15

Retention of cultural heritage 16

Protection as co-operation 17

Conclusion 18

The legal value of cultural heritage 19

The definition of cultural heritage in International Conventions 20

Conclusion:For the purposes of the present Convention 28

Post script:A note on terminology 29

2 International legal framework 31

Introduction 31

The International Law of Conventions 32

The adoption of Conventions and consent by States to be bound 32

Protocols 35

Reservations 36

Entry into force 38

Revision of Conventions 39

Retrospectivity of Conventions 40

The national implementation of international Conventions 41

Interpretation of Conventions 44

The binding nature of Conventions 48

The State in whose territory the cultural heritage is found 48

Other States Parties to a Convention 49

Third States 50

The international community 51

Customary international law 52

Soft law 54

3 Cultural heritage and armed conflicts 56

Introduction 56

The armed conflict in the Balkans 57

Iraq and the Gulf Wars 59

A history of war and cultural heritage 63

The Hague Regulations 67

The First World War and its aftermath 69

The Second World War and the 1949 Geneva Conventions 73

The doctrine of military necessity 76

1954 Hague Convention 78

Overview of the Convention 78

The preamble's guiding principles 80

Scope of Application of the Convention 81

Definition of cultural property 85

The core Conventional duties 87

Safeguarding cultural property 87

Respect for cultural property 89

Occupation 93

Special protection 97

Special protection and the military necessity exception 99

The international regulatory regime 102

First Protocol and occupation 104

The 1977 Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions 108

The 1999 Second Protocol 110

General provisions regarding protection 112

The enhanced protection regime 117

The list of cultural property under enhanced protection 118

Enhanced protection and military necessity 119

Penal sanctions 122

New institutional arrangements 126

The protection of cultural property during armed conflict and customary international law 127

Conclusion 130

4 The return,restitution and repatriation of movable cultural heritage 132

Introduction 132

The history of the protection of movable cultural heritage 133

The return,restitution and repatriation framework 136

The market for cultural heritage 136

Defining terms of movement 140

Restitution 140

Return 142

Repatriation 144

Place of origin 145

Identifying the physical origin 146

Identifying the cultural origin 146

Concepts of ownership 148

Private ownership 148

State ownership 150

State ownership through forfeiture 153

Export restrictions 153

Effectiveness of national laws 155

The retentionist debate 157

Return of cultural heritage 160

The universal museum 164

The return of human remains 165

The 1970 Convention 166

The negotiation history 166

The preamble's guiding principles 167

Definition of cultural property 168

National cultural property 170

Making illicit the export and import of cultural property 174

The export and import regime 176

An expanded interpretation of the export and import regime 177

A narrow interpretation of the export and import regime 178

The timing of the illicit export and import 183

Transfer of ownership of cultural property 183

National services and duties that address the illicit trade in cultural property 185

Sanctions 187

Occupied and controlled territories 188

Bilateral agreements 189

Participation in the Convention 191

An evaluation of the Convention 195

The 1995 UNIDROIT Convention 196

The preamble's guiding principles 198

Defining cultural objects 199

Scope of the Convention 200

The restitution of stolen cultural objects 201

The right of the original owner to restitution 202

Time limitations 204

Compensation 206

Illegally exported cultural objects 208

Time limitations 212

Compensation 212

The exception to the rule 214

Jurisdiction 215

Non-retrospectivity 217

An evaluation of the UNIDROIT Convention 218

The illicit trade in Iraqi cultural property 219

5 World Heritage Convention 224

Introduction 224

National protection for monuments 224

The development of the Conventional regime 226

The World Heritage Convention 227

The preamble's guiding principles 228

Defining world cultural heritage 230

Determining 'outstanding universal value' 232

Outstanding universal value as an evolving concept 233

The 2008 Operational Guidelines' criteria for outstanding universal value 236

The legal meaning of outstanding universal value 237

Authenticity and integrity 238

The protection and management regime 240

Defining the natural heritage 240

National protection of cultural heritage 241

International protection of cultural heritage 244

Deliberate actions of a State that damages the World Heritage 245

Property rights and national legislation 246

The World Heritage Committee 247

The World Heritage List 248

The Tentative List 250

Nomination and listing of cultural heritage on the World Heritage List 252

The List 255

The List of World Heritage in Danger 257

World Cultural Heritage not Inscribed on the World Heritage List 261 International assistance 262

Cultural heritage eligible for international assistance 263

Types of international assistance 264

Requests and granting of assistance 265

The administration of the international assistance granted 267

The World Heritage Fund 267

The nature of States Parties contribution to the Fund 268

The management of the Fund 269

The administrative framework 271

The advisory bodies 272

The reporting structure 273

The relationship between UNESCO and the World Heritage administrative structure 275

The nature of the international obligations in the World Heritage Convention 276

Obligations erga omnes 277

Enforcement of obligations 278

The temples of Angkor and the Buddhas of Bamiyan 278

The Angkor Archaeological Park 278

Bamiyan Buddhas 279

The future of the Convention 285

Conclusion 286

6 Underwater cultural heritage 287

Introduction 287

From salvage to underwater archaeology 289

Beginnings 289

The nascent discipline of underwater archaeology 291

The continued application of salvage law 292

The Nuestra Senora de Atocha 294

The Geldermalsen 296

The Central America 297

The Titanic 298

The law of salvage and finds 300

Marine peril 300

Voluntary efforts 303

Success 304

Salvor's rights 304

Exclusive possession 305

Salvage award 307

Ownership of underwater cultural heritage 309

Finders 312

The conflict between archaeology and salvage 313

The economic exploitation of underwater cultural heritage 314

Ownership of artefacts 316

Splitting up of collections 317

Employment of inappropriate recovery techniques 318

Co-operation between user groups 319

Conclusion 320

International law of the sea 320

Article 149 321

Article 303 323

Council of Europe Draft Convention 329

Salvage Convention 330

Underwater Cultural Heritage Convention 331

The International Law Association initiative 331

The scope of the convention 333

Defining 'underwater cultural heritage' 333

Warships and other State owned vessels 335

Identifying the activities to be regulated 338

The geographical scope 339

Good archaeological practice 340

In situ preservation 341

The place of salvage law and the law of finds 342

The development of the non-commercialisation clause 343

The development of the salvage law clause 345

The jurisdictional structure 347

The enforcement regime 350

Authorisation,sanctions and seizure 350

Competent authorities,public awareness and training 354

International co-operation in the protection of underwater cultural heritage 356

International principles and consistency 358

Conclusion 360

7 Intangible cultural heritage 362

Introduction 362

The legal protection of intangible cultural heritage 363

The intangible cultural Heritage Convention 367

The preamble's guiding principles and context 367

Purpose of the Convention 369

Defining the intangible cultural heritage 371

The Conventional structure 373

National safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage 374

The international safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage 376

The Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage 377

Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity 377

The List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding 379

International co-operation and assistance 381

The Fund 383

The tangible and intangible relationship 384

Conclusion 385

8 From five international conventions to an international law of co-operation 388

Introduction 388

A convention of its time 388

The extent of overlap between the cultural heritage conventions 390

From norms to international co-operation 396

The normative conventional regimes 397

International enforcement 400

Criminal offences against cultural heritage in international law 402

Conventional norms as the sustainer of conflict 403

The co-operative conventional regimes 404

A principled basis for the protection of cultural heritage 405

Cultural heritage as the common concern of humankind 405

Cultural heritage as the common heritage of humankind 406

The international concept of the common heritage of humankind 407

Cultural 'nationalism' vs 'internationalism' 408

An institutional approach 413

UNESCO's mandate 413

The relationship between UNESCO and the UNESCO cultural heritage conventions 415

Education 419

Principle of co-operation 421

The future of the international law of co-operation 423

Appendix Ⅰ:Table of State Parties 425

Appendix Ⅱ:Defining the Cultural Heritage 430

Bibliography 434

Index 448