Fundamentals of thermodynamics Sixth EditionPDF电子书下载

1 SOME INTRODUCTORY COMMENTS 1

1.1 The Simple Steam Power Plant 1

1.2 Fuel Cells 2

1.3 The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle 5

1.4 The Thermoelectric Refrigerator 7

1.5 The Air Separation Plant 8

1.6 The Gas Turbine 9

1.7 The Chemical Rocket Engine 11

1.8 Other Applications and Environmental Issues 12

2 SOME CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 14

2.1 A Thermodynamic System and the Control Volume 14

2.2 Macroscopic Versus Microscopic Point of View 15

2.3 Properties and State of a Substance 16

2.4 Processes and Cycles 17

2.5 Units for MassLengthTimeand Force 18

2.6 Energy 21

2.7 Specific Volume and Density 23

2.8 Pressure 25

2.9 Equality of Temperature 31

2.10 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 31

2.11 Temperature Scales 32

Problems 34

3 PROPERTIES OF A PURE SUBSTANCE 43

3.1 The Pure Substance 44

3.2 Vapor-Liquid-Solid-Phase Equilibrium in a Pure Substance 44

3.3 Independent Properties of a Pure Substance 51

3.4 Tables of Thermodynamic Properties 51

3.5 Thermodynamic Surfaces 59

3.6 The P-V-T Behavior of Low- and Moderate-Density Gases 61

3.7 Computerized Tables 69

Problems 72

4 WORK AND HEAT 84

4.1 Definition of Work 84

4.2 Units for Work 86

4.3 Work Done at the Moving Boundary of a Simple Compressible System 87

4.4 Other Systems that Involve Work 96

4.5 Concluding Remarks Regarding Work 98

4.6 Definition of Heat 100

4.7 Heat Transfer Modes 101

4.8 Comparison of Heat and Work 103

Problems 105

5 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 116

5.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Mass Undergoing a Cycle 116

5.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Change in State of a Control Masass 117

5.3 Internal Energy—A Thermodynamic Property 124

5.4 Problem Analysis and Solution Technique 126

5.5 The Thermodynamic Property Enthalpy 130

5.6 The Constant-Volume and Constant-Pressure Specific Heats 133

5.7 The Internal EnergyEnthalpyand Specific Heat of Ideal Gases 135

5.8 The First Law as a Rate Equation 141

5.9 Conservation of Mass 143

Problems 145

6 FIRST LAW ANALYSIS FOR A CONTROL VOLUME 162

6.1 Conservation of Mass and the Control Volume 162

6.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume 165

6.3 The Steady-State Process 167

6.4 Examples of Steady-State Processes 169

6.5 The Transient Process 183

Problems 195

7 THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 214

7.1 Heat Engines and Refrigerators 214

7.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 220

7.3 The Reversible Process 223

7.4 Factors that Render Processes Irreversible 224

7.5 The Carnot Cycle 227

7.6 Two Propositions Regarding the Efficiency of a Carnot Cycle 229

7.7 The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale 230

7.8 The Ideal-Gas Temperature Scale 233

7.9 Ideal versus Real Machines 236

Problems 240

8 ENTROPY 251

8.1 The Inequality of Clausius 251

8.2 Entropy—A Property of a System 255

8.3 The Entropy of a Pure Substance 257

8.4 Entropy Change in Reversible Processes 259

8.5 The Thermodynamic Property Relation 263

8.6 Entropy Change of a Control Mass During an Irreversible Process 264

8.7 Entropy Generation 266

8.8 Principle of the Increase of Entropy 268

8.9 Entropy Change of a Solid or Liquid 272

8.10 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas 273

8.11 The Reversible Polytropic Process for an Ideal Gas 278

8.12 Entropy as a Rate Equation 282

Problems 285

9 SECOND LAW ANALYSIS FOR A CONTROL VOLUME 302

9.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume 302

9.2 The Steady-State Process and the Transient Process 304

9.3 The Reversible Steady-State Process 313

9.4 Principle of the Increase of Entropy 316

9.5 Efficiency 317

9.6 Some General Comments Regarding Entropy 323

Problems 325

10 IRREVERSIBILITY AND AVAILABILITY 343

10.1 Available EnergyReversible Workand Irreversibility 343

10.2 Availability and Second-Law Efficiency 355

10.3 Exergy Balance Equation 363

Problems 370

11 POWER AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS 382

11.1 Introduction to Power Systems 382

11.2 The Rankine Cycle 384

11.3 Effect of Pressure and Temperature on the Rankine Cycle 388

11.4 The Reheat Cycle 393

11.5 The Regernative Cycle 396

11.6 Deviation of Actual Cycles from Ideal Cycles 403

11.7 Cogeneration 409

11.8 Air-Standard Power Cycles 410

11.9 The Brayton Cycle 411

11.10 The Simple Gas-Turbine Cycle with a Regenerator 418

11.11 Gas-Turbine Power Cycle Configurations 421

11.12 The Air-Standard Cycle for Jet Propulsion 424

11.13 Reciprocating Engine Power Cycles 426

11.14 The Otto Cycle 427

11.15 The Diesel Cycle 431

11.16 The Stirling Cycle 433

11.17 Introduction to Refrigeration Systems 434

11.18 The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle 435

11.19 Working Fluids for Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems 438

11.20 Deviation of the Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle from the Ideal Cycle 439

11.21 The Ammonia Absorption Refrigeration Cycle 441

11.22 The Air-Standard Refrigeration Cycle 442

11.23 Combined-Cycle Power and Refrigeration Systems 446

Problems 450

12 GAS MIXTURES 473

12.1 General Considerations and Mixtures of Ideal Gases 473

12.2 A Simplified Model of a Mixture Involving Gases and a Vapor 480

12.3 The First Law Applied to Gas-Vapor Mixtures 485

12.4 The Adiabatic Saturation Process 488

12.5 Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures 490

12.6 The Psychrometric Chart 491

Problems 494

13 THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS 511

13.1 The Clapeyron Equation 511

13.2 Mathematical Relations for a Homogeneous Phase 515

13.3 The Maxwell Relations 516

13.4 Thermodynamic Relations Involving EnthalpyInternal Energy,and Entropy 519

13.5 Volume Expansivity and Isothermal and Adiabatic Compressibility 524

13.6 Real Gas Behavior and Equations of State 527

13.7 The Generalized Chart for Changes of Enthalpy at Constant Temperature 532

13.8 The Generalized Chart for Changes of Entropy at Constant Temperature 535

13.9 Developing Tables of Thermodynamic Properties from Experimental Data 538

13.10 The Property Relation for Mixtures 540

13.11 Pseudopure Substance Models for Real-Gas Mixtures 543

Problems 550

14 CHEMICAL REACTIONS 561

14.1 Fuels 561

14.2 The Combustion Process 564

14.3 Enthalpy of Formation 572

14.4 First-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems 574

14.5 Enthalpy and Internal Energy of Combustion; Heat of Reaction 581

14.6 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 585

14.7 The Third Law of Thermodynamics and Absolute Entropy 587

14.8 Second-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems 589

14.9 Fuel Cells 596

14.10 Evaluation of Actual Combustion Processes 599

Problems 604

15 INTRODUCTION TO PHASE AND CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 617

15.1 Requirements for Equilibrium 617

15.2 Equilibrium Between Two Phases of a Pure Substance 619

15.3 Metastable Equilibrium 623

15.4 Chemical Equilibrium 625

15.5 Simultaneous Reactions 634

15.6 Ionization 638

Problems 643

APPENDIX A SI UNITS: SINGLE STATE PROPERTIES 653

APPENDIX B SI UNITS: THERMODYNAMIC TABLES 673

APPENDIX C IDEAL-GAS SPECIFIC HEAT 723

APPENDIX D EQUATIONS OF STATE 725

APPENDIX E FIGURES 731

APPFNDIX F ENGLISH UNIT TABLES 737

ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 779

INDEX 789