COMPARATIVE INCOME TAXATION:A STRUCTURAL ANALYSISPDF电子书下载

Introduction 1

Part One: General Description 5

Australia 5

1. History of the income tax 5

2. Composition of fiscal system 6

3. Tax rates 7

4. The basic structure of income tax system 8

5. Statutory style 10

6. Statutory interpretation 12

7. Administrative, taxpayer and judicial style 14

7.1 Administrative style 14

7.2 Taxpayer style 16

7.3 Judicial style 18

8. General principles 19

8.1 Relation of tax and financial accounting 19

8.2 Respect for civil law form 19

9. Anti-avoidance legislation 21

Canada 25

1. History of the income tax 25

2. Constitutional issues 25

3. Composition of fiscal system 26

4. Tax rates 26

5. Basic structure of the system 27

6. Statutory style 29

7. Statutory interpretation 30

8. The role of the courts 31

9. The Canadian self-assessment system 32

10.Revenue Canada’s administrative style 32

11.Taxpayers’ style 32

12.Relation of tax and financial accounting 34

13.Respect of civil or private law form 35

14.Substance over form 35

15.Anti-avoidance doctrines and legislation 36

France 39

1. History and basic structure of the tax system 39

1.1 General outline 39

1.2 The individual income taxation system 39

2. Rate structure 41

2.1 Individual income tax 41

2.2 Corporate income tax 42

3. Basic structure of the tax system 42

4. Statutory style 43

5. Statutory interpretation and judicial style 44

6. Administrative style 45

6.1 Administrative interpretations 45

6.2 Tax audits 46

7. Taxpayers’ style 46

8. Relation of tax and financial accounting 47

9. Respect for civil law 47

10.Anti-avoidance doctrines and rules 47

11.Tax assessment 48

Germany 49

1. Power to enact tax laws 49

2. Sharing of tax revenue 49

3. Administrating taxes 50

4. Significance of taxes 50

4.1 Importance of individual taxes 50

4.2 Shift from direct taxes to indirect taxes 53

5. Personal income tax 54

5.1 Tax base 54

5.2 Tax rates 57

6. Corporate income tax 58

7. Trade tax on income and capital 59

8. Statutory style 60

9. Impact of the Constitution and the Federal Constitutional Court 61

9.1 Basic rights 61

9.2 Important decisions 61

10.Statutory interpretation 62

11.Role of the courts 63

12.The German assessment system 63

12.1 Tax filing and audit enforcement 64

12.2 Differences in tax compliance 64

13.Appeals against tax assessments 66

14.Appeal to court 66

14.1 Federal Tax Court （Bundesfinanzhof） 67

15.Administrative style 67

16.Taxpayer’s style 68

17.Relation of tax and financial accounting 68

18.Respect of civil or private law 69

19.Substance over form 69

Japan 71

1. History 71

2. Basic structure of the system 74

3. Rate structure 74

4. Composition of fiscal system 75

5. Statutory style 75

6. Statutory interpretation 76

7. Administrative style 76

8. Taxpayer style 77

9. Judicial role and style 79

10.General principles 79

10.1 Relation of tax to financial accounting 79

10.2 Extent of respect for civil law form 79

10.3 Anti-avoidance doctrines or legislation 79

11.Procedure 80

The Netherlands 81

1. Tax system 81

2. History of the Netherlands tax system, tax morale and tax simplification 82

3. Statutory and judicial style and role 82

3.1 Statutory style 83

3.2 Judicial role and style 84

4. Basic structure of the income tax system 85

4.1 Types of income taxes 85

4.2 Sources of income 86

4.3 Tax rates 87

4.4 Indexation to inflation 88

5. Statutory interpretation 88

5.1 In general 88

5.2 Respect under tax law for the civil （private） law form of contracts 89

5.3 Substance over form 89

6. Tax administration 89

6.1 Organization of the Revenue Service 91

6.2 Taxpayer bill of rights； ombudsman 91

6.3 Release of Government information to taxpayers 92

6.4 Advance rulings 92

7. Tax procedure 93

7.1 Assessment, administrative appeal and appeal to courts 93

7.2 Impact of human rights conventions and EC Treaty fundamental freedom provisions 94

8. International 95

8.1 Historically-based foreign orientation 95

8.2 Double taxation relief 95

8.3 Classical system 96

Sweden 97

1. Historical development 97

2. Basic structure 97

3. Composition of fiscal system 100

4. Statutory style 101

5. Statutory interpretation 102

6. Administrative style 103

7. Taxpayer style 104

8. Judicial style 104

9. General principles 104

9.1 Relation of tax and financial accounting 105

9.2 Respect of civil law 105

9.3 Anti-avoidance 105

10.Procedure 106

United Kingdom 109

1. The principle direct taxes 109

1.1 Income Tax 109

1.2 Capital Gains Tax （CGT） 112

1.3 Corporation Tax 114

2. Indirect taxes 115

3. Constitutional structure 116

4. Rate of tax 117

4.1 History and politics 117

4.2 Inflation 117

4.3 Rate structure and reliefs, 1996 117

5. Tax setting 117

5.1 Administration 119

5.2 Avoidance of tax 121

5.3 Sources of law, official practice and rulings 125

6. Role of courts 126

6.1 Judicial review 126

6.2 Appeal system 127

7. The current situation 128

United States 131

1. History of the federal income tax 131

2. Constitutional issues 132

3. Tax rates 133

4. Composition of fiscal system 135

5. Basic structure of income tax for individuals 137

6. Basic structure of the corporate income tax 142

7. Statutory style 144

8. Statutory interpretation 145

9. Administrative, taxpayer and judicial style 147

9.1 Administrative style 147

9.2 Taxpayer style 148

9.3 Judicial structure and style 149

10.Relationship of tax and financial accounting 149

11.Anti-avoidance legislation 150

12.Future developments 151

Part Two: Basic Income Taxation 155

Subpart A: Inclusions in the tax base 155

1. Employee fringe benefits 157

1.1 General 157

1.2 Employer-provided pension benefits 165

2. Imputed income from owner-occupied housing 172

3. Gifts 175

3.1 Gifts outside of a business context （“personal” gifts ） 176

3.2 Gifts in a business or employment context 177

4. Prizes and awards 178

5. Scholarships and grants 180

6. Cancellation of indebtedness 182

7. Gambling 185

8. Illegal income 186

9. Windfalls 187

10.Subsidies 188

11.Realization and recognition of gain 189

12.Capital gains and losses 194

Subpart B: Deductions 204

1. Mixed business and personal expenses 204

1.1 Commuting 207

1.2 Moving expenses 210

1.3 Clothing 212

1.4 Business travel 214

1.5 Business entertainment 216

1.6 Child care 219

2. “Hobby losses” and the criteria for determining business versus personal activities 222

3. Capital costs and recovery methods 225

3.1 Determining capital costs 225

3.2 Capital cost recovery systems 226

4. Educational costs 232

5. Deduction of personal costs 233

5.1 Interest 233

5.2 Personal losses 236

5.3 Medical expenses 238

5.4 Charitable deduction 239

6. Limitations on deductions and losses 241

6.1 Illegal payments, fines and penalties 241

6.2 Expense associated with tax-exempt income 243

6.3 “Quarantining” and other limits or restrictions on certain categories of expenses 245

Subpart C: Accounting 250

1. Basic accounting methods 250

2. Inclusion of advance payments 257

3. Income treatment of deferred payments 258

4. Original issue discount obligations and other complex financial instruments 260

Subpart D: Attribution of income 269

1. Definition of taxable unit 270

2. Alimony and child support 276

3. Limitations on assignment of income 280

Part Three: Taxation of Business Organizations 285

Subpart A: Corporate-Shareholder Taxation 285

1. Overview of corporate tax systems 286

2. Defining entities subject to tax 289

3. Issues in corporate formation 292

4. Issues involving capital structure 298

5. Taxation of corporate distributions 302

5.1 Basic structure of distribution rules 302

5.2 Relating distributions to corporate earnings 304

5.3 Constructive dividends 305

5.4 Intercorporate dividends 308

5.5 Distributions of appreciated or depreciated property 311

5.6 Distributions involving changes in corporate structure 313

5.6.1 General 313

5.6.2 Stock dividends 314

5.6.3 Redemptions 317

6. Liquidations 320

7. Corporate reorganizations and restructuring 324

7.1 General 324

7.2 Merger transactions 325

7.3 Share exchanges 331

7.4 Nonmerger asset reorganizations 333

7.5 Corporate divisions: “Demergers” 333

8. Transfer and limitations on transfer of corporate tax attributes 340

9. Consolidated corporate taxation 343

10.Special tax regimes for closely held corporations 348

Subpart B: Partnership Taxation 354

1. Qualification for pass-thru taxation 355

2. Basic structure of pass-thru taxation 356

3. Liabilities, basis and losses 360

4. Transactions between partner and partnership 361

5. Disposition of partnership interest 363

6. Liquidation of the partnership 365

Part Four: International Taxation 368

Subpart A: Residence Taxation 368

1. Bases for the assertion of personal taxing jurisdiction 368

1.1 Individuals 368

1.2 Corporations 371

2. Change of status 373

2.1 Change of status of individuals 373

2.2 Change of status of corporations 376

2.3 Dual residence 379

3. Mechanisms for relief of double taxation 380

3.1 Issues in the structure of a foreign taxcredit system 385

3.1.1 Creditable taxes 385

3.1.2 Limitations on the credit 388

3.1.3 Allocation of expenses to foreign-source income 391

3.1.4 Treatment of losses in the credit computation 394

3.1.5 Carryover of excess credits or limitation 396

3.1.6 Indirect credit for foreign taxes paid by foreign subsidiaries 397

3.1.6.1 Share ownership requirements 398

3.1.6.2 Tier Limitations 399

3.1.6.3 Computation of the indirect credit 399

3.1.7 Interaction between indirect credit and limitation system 400

3.2 Issues in the structure of an exemption for foreign income 402

3.2.1 Structure of the exemption 402

3.2.2 Classes of exempt income 402

3.2.3 Allocation of deductions to tax-exempt income 406

3.2.4 Treatment of foreign losses 408

4.Limitations on exemptions or deferral of income of foreign corporations 409

4.1 Limitations on exemption for shareholders in foreign corporations with significant domestic share ownership 411

4.2 Limitations on deferral for shareholders of foreign corporations with significant domestic share ownership 413

4.3 Special provisions dealing with domestic portfolio investment in foreign investment companies 422

5.Outbound transfers to foreign branches or subsidiaries 425

Subpart B: Source Taxation 431

1.Issues in the structure of net basis taxation of business income 431

1.1 Threshold of activity 431

1.2 Attribution of business income for net basis taxation 434

1.3 Determination of deductions in the net basis taxation of business income 439

1.4 Taxation of employment income 442

1.5 Other situations involving net basis taxation 444

2. Issues in the structure of gross basis taxation 445

3. Branch profits tax 452

4. Limitations on base-eroding payments to nonresidents 452

5. Restrictions on source-based taxation of nonresidents within the European Union 455

Subpart C: Additional International Topics 459

1. Special international anti-avoidance rules 459

2. Selected intercompany pricing issues 461

3. Selected treaty issues 467

3.1 Relation between domestic law and treaties； treaty override 467

3.2 Approach to treaty interpretation 469

3.3 Anti-treaty shopping policy 471

3.4 Nondiscrimination 474

3.5 “Model” treaties 476

3.6 Tax sparing by treaty 478

Part Five: Selected Bibliography 481

Index 533