LOW TEMPERATURE PHYSICSPDF电子书下载

Chapter Ⅰ Gas Liquefaction and the Equation of State 1

Equation of State for a Gas 1

Entropy and Enthalpy 4

Production of Low Temperatures with Gases 5

Claude Expander 5

Entropy Changes and Temperature Drop 6

Joule-Thomson Cooling—Linde Process 8

Engineering Applications 9

Physical Constants of Various Gases 11

Chapter Ⅱ Experimental Methods of Low-temperature Physics 12

Compressors 12

Gasholders 13

Helium Liquefiers 15

Storage Containers for Liquid Helium 20

Liquid Hydrogen by Condensation 21

Cryostats for Experiments 21

Temperature Measurements 25

Vapor Pressure of Liquid Helium 25

Vapor Pressure of Liquid Hydrogen 27

Equipment for Vapor-pressure Measurements 27

Constant-volume Gas Thermometer 28

Resistance Thermometer 29

Thermocouples 30

Heat Flow into Cryostats 30

Chapter Ⅲ Theoretical Considerations of the Equation of State 32

Classical Quantum Statistics 32

Lennard-Jones Potential 34

Second Virial Coefficient inClassical Statistics 36

Third Virial Coefficient in Classical Statistics 39

De Boer Theory of the Equation of State 41

Calculations of the Molecular Constants σ and e 46

Quantum-mechanical Partition Function 48

Transformation of the Slater Sum 49

Slater Sums in Some Simple Examples 50

Second Virial Coefficient for an Ideal Quantum Gas 53

Kirkwood Expansion of the Slater Sum 55

Second Virial Coefficient at Low Temperatures 56

Equation of State of Compressed Gases and Liquids 58

Chapter Ⅳ Liquid Helium—Thermal Properties 60

Liquid Helium Ⅰ and Liquid Helium Ⅱ 61

Diagram of State p vs.T 61

Specific Heat of Liquid Helium 61

Entropy of Liquid Helium 62

Zero-point Energy 64

Latent Heat of Vaporization 65

Density and Dielectric Constant of Liquid Helium 66

Viscosity of Liquid Helium 68

Thermal Properties of He3 Isotope 70

Chapter Ⅴ Liquid Helium—Dynamic Properties 74

Flow Phenomena in Capillaries 74

Film Flow in Liquid Helium Ⅱ 75

Mechano-caloric Effect 77

Entropy of Helium Ⅱ—Flow Studies by P. Kapitza 78

Hydrodynamic Studies—Fountain Effect 79

Heat Conductivity 82

Velocity and Attenuation of Sound in Liquid Helium 84

Second Sound or Thermal Waves in Liquid Helium Ⅱ 86

Second-sound Velocity at Very Low Temperatures 88

Thermal Rayleigh Disk in Helium Ⅱ 89

Mixtures of He？and He4 in Vapor and Liquid Phase 93

Chapter Ⅵ Theories of Liquid Helium 97

Quantum Theories of F. London 97

Thermodynamics of the Two-fluid Model for Liquid Helium Ⅱ 103

Tisza’s Phenomenological Theory of the Dynamic Properties of He Ⅱ 104

Second-sound-wave Equation 105

Transmission Line Analogy 107

The Theory of L. Landau 108

Chapter Ⅶ Superconductivity 110

Resistance Studies 111

Crystal Structure and Volume 112

Isotope Effect 113

Consequences of Infinite Conductivity 113

Magnetic Critical Field 114

Meissner Effect 115

Thermal Properties of Superconductors 117

Specific Heat and Entropy 117

Magneto-caloric Effect in Superconductors 121

Electrodynamic Studies 121

Gyro-magnetic Effect 121

Torsion Pendulum Studies—Infinite Conductivity and Superconductivity 123

Skin Depth of Penetration of a Magnetic Field 125

Thermal Conductivity of Superconductors 126

Thermoelectric Effect in Superconductors 126

Effect of Strain on a Superconductor 127

High-frequency Measurements on Superconductors 127

The Theories of Superconductivity 131

Theory of H.London and F.London 131

Quantum Theories of Superconductivity 134

Two-electron Fluid Model 136

Chapter Ⅷ Magnetism at Low Temperatures 138

Some Fundamental Concepts of Magnetization 138

Electronic Magnetic Moment—Orbital Motion 139

Larmor Precession 139

Diamagnetism 141

Electron Spin Magnetic Moment 141

Spin-orbit Coupling 142

Statistical Mechanics of Paramagnetism 143

Low Temperatures and High Magnetic Fields—Saturation 144

Brillouin Function 145

Measurement of Magnetic Susceptibility and Moments 145

Balance Method 145

Induction Coils for Magnetic Susceptibility at Low Temperatures 147

Demagnetization Factor 148

Some Typical Experimental Results 148

Ideal Salts—Curie Law 148

Antiferromagnetism 150

Magnetic Cooling 151

Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics of the Method 151

Experimental Methods in Magnetic Cooling 154

Remarks on the Magnetization Process 155

Demagnetization 156

Determination of Temperature 156

Experimental Results 157

Iron Ammonium Alum 157

Chromium Potassium Alum 161

Theoretical Analysis 161

Nuclear Alignment 163

Magnetic Resonance 164

Nuclear Magnetic Induction 167

Theoretical Analysis of Magnetic Induction 167

Particular Solution 170

Some General Remarks about Magnetic Induction and Absorption 172

Experimental Results 173

Solid Hydrogen 173

Studies on Solids at Low Temperature 175

Paramagnetic Resonance Absorption by Electron Systems 176

Diamagnetism of Free Electrons 180

de Haas-van Alphen Effect 180

Theory of Diamagnetism of Free Electrons 181

Chapter Ⅸ Thermal Energy in the Solid State at Low Temperatures 186

Lattice Vibrations 186

The Difference Cp—Cv for Solids 191

Electronic Specific Heat at Low Temperatures in Metals 192

Some Characteristic Experimental Results on Metals 194

Copper 194

Silver and Gold 196

Iron，Cobalt，and Nickel 196

Palladium and Platinum 197

Specific Heat of Superconductors 197

Tin 197

Tantalum 198

Experimental Results on Metals with Anomalous Specific Heats 199

Tungsten 199

Lithium 200

Beryllium 201

Rare-earth Elements：Lanthanum，Cerium，Neodymium，and Praseodymium 201

Chromium and Manganese 202

Germanium and Hafnium 202

Specific Heat of Solids with Several Types of Atoms 202

Rotation of Atoms and Molecules in the Solid State 205

Theory of Cooperative Phenomena 207

Specific Heats Showing λ Transitions 210

Experimental Methods 211

Heat Conductivity in Solids 214

Chapter Ⅹ Dielectric Properties at Low Temperatures 220

Some Fundamental Concepts 220

Barium Titanate 222

Strontium Titanate 225

Ferro-electric Tartrates 226

Solid Hydrogen Bromide 227

Theory of Barium Titanate 228

Appendix 229

Agreed Vapor Pressure of Liquid Helium 229

Deviations with Kistemaker’s Temperature Scale 234

Vapor Pressure of Liquid Hydrogen 234

Vapor Pressure of Liquid Oxygen 235

Vapor Pressure of Mixture of He3 and He4 236

Physical Constants 238

Index 239