ENVIRONMENTAL LAW HANDBOOKPDF电子书下载

Chapter 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAW 1

Introduction 1

Lawyers and Laymen 1

What Is Environmental Law？ 2

Environmental Law and the Courts 2

States and United States Court Systems 3

Cases Which the United States Courts Can Decide 3

United States Court System 5

Courts in Practical Perspective 6

Common Law 6

Case Law 8

Obiter Dicta 8

Torts 8

Nuisance 9

Private or Public Nuisances 9

Noise Nuisance 11

Other Nuisances 12

Some Defenses to Nuisance Actions 14

Coming to a Nuisance 15

Trespass 16

Negligence 18

Res Ipsa Loquitur 19

Violation of a Statute or Ordinance 20

Dangerous Substances - Strict Liability 21

Defenses to an Action for Negligence 22

Contributory Negligence 22

Assumption of Risk 22

Proving Negligence 22

Sovereign Immunity and Torts 23

Constitutional Law 24

Constitution and Government Authority 24

Limits on Governmental Action 24

Search Warrants and the Fourth Amendment 24

Prohibition Against Self-Incrimination:The Fifth Amendment 27

Due Process， the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments 27

Police Power and Due Process 28

Prohibition Against Taking Property Without Compensation 29

Commerce Clause Limitations 31

Equal Protection of the Laws 32

Constitutional Protection of the Environment 33

Defenses 35

Generally 35

Laches 36

Contractual Authorization 37

Public Authorization 37

Vagueness 37

Unreasonableness and Impossibility of Performance 38

Parties 40

Standing， or Who May Sue 40

Class Actions 41

Evidence 42

Burden of Proof 42

Judicial Notice 42

Presumptions 43

Admissions 43

Questions of Law and Fact 43

Relevant and Material 43

Res Inter Alios Acta 43

Hearsay 43

Opinion Evidence 44

Best Evidence Rule 44

Parol Evidence Rule 44

Witnesses 44

Privileged Communications 45

Your Own Reports as Evidence Against You 46

Samples or Physical Evidence 46

Evidence Collection and Constitutional Rights 46

Administrative Law 47

Generally 47

Powers of Governmental Agencies 47

Procedures 48

Evidence in Administrative Law 48

Hearings 49

Judicial Review 49

Attorneys’ Fees - New Concepts 51

Criminal and Civil Liability 51

Chapter 2 NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT 55

Introduction 55

Overview 56

Title Ⅰ: Policy and Goals 56

Enforceability of Title I Policy and Goals 56

The Environmental Impact Statement 57

Title Ⅱ: Council on Environmental Quality 57

How NEPA Relates to Other Federal Law 58

Environmental Impact Statements 62

Background: CEQ’s NEPA Regulations 62

Proposed Actions Requiring an EIS 64

Findings of No Significant Impact 66

EIS Requirements for Special Types of Federal Action 67

Procedure and Time of Required Issuance 69

Who Can Prepare the EIS and the Lead Agency System 70

Delegation 70

The Lead Agency System 71

Contents 72

“International” Environmental Statements 73

Applicants’ Environmental Reports 74

The Seven Other “Action-Forcing” Provisions 75

Who Can Sue for Alleged Violations of NEPA 78

Chapter 3 WATER POLLUTION CONTROL 81

Introduction - The Historical Perspective 81

Water Quality Standards 81

Effluent Criteria Under the Refuse Act 82

The Need for New Authority 82

The Clean Water Act 82

The Federal-State Water Pollution Control Program Overview 83

Goals and Objectives 83

Mechanisms for Achieving Goals and Objectives 83

Permitting Under The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System 84

Program Scope and Applicability 85

Permitting Procedures 87

Permit Conditions 90

Establishing the Limitations for Inclusion in the Permit —Technology and Water Quality-Based Limits 93

Pollutants to be Addressed 94

Required Level of Treatment--Technology-Based Limits for “Existing” Direct Discharges 99

Required Level of Treatment--Technology-Based Limits for “New Source” Direct Discharges 102

Required Level of Treatment—Technology-Based Limits for Indirect Dischargers （Pre-Treatment） 104

Technology-Based Treatment Standards for Industrial Dischargers Dealing With Process Variability 106

Technology-Based Treatment Standards--Publicly Owned Treatment Works 109

More Stringent Treatment Required to Meet Water Quality-Related Effluent Limitations 111

Controlling Non-Process-Related Waste Discharges 115

Controlling Area-Wide Non-Point Source Pollution --Section 208 Planning 116

Stormwater Discharges and Best Management Practices 117

Oil and Hazardous Substances 119

Oil 119

Hazardous Substances 121

Other Critical Elements of the Water Act Program 122

Abatement Actions and Sanctions 122

Citizen Suits 125

Provisions Having Special Applicability 126

Discharges to Ground Waters 126

Dredged or Fill Material 127

Ocean Discharge Criteria 129

Thermal Discharges 129

The EPA Construction Grants Program 129

The Cost Recovery Program 130

User Charges 131

Cost Effectiveness and Eligibility 134

Construction Grants--Summary 135

Pollution Control Planning in the Current Regulatory Climate 136

EPA Standards Development Programs 136

Negotiation of Permit Conditions 137

Discussions With Regional Office and State Officials 138

State and Local Planning Activities 138

Conclusion 138

Annex A—Section 307—Toxic Pollutants 140

Annex B 142

Chapter 4 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL 143

Introduction 143

History 144

Establishment of Air Quality Standards 145

Air Quality Criteria 145

National Ambient Air Quality Standards 145

Air Quality Control Regions 148

State Implementation Plans （SIP’s） 148

Content of SIP 148

Role of Technology and Economics 152

Use of Dispersion Techniques 153

Transportation Control Plans 154

Maintenance of Ambient Air Quality Standards 155

Indirect Source Review 156

Variances 157

New Source Review in Non-Attainment Areas 158

Prevention of Significant Deterioration （PSD） 160

Energy Related Authority 164

Conversions to Coal 164

Energy Emergency Provisions 165

National Stationary Source Emission Standards 165

New Source Performance Standards 165

Hazardous Emission Standards 167

Information Gathering Authority 168

Enforcement Authority 169

Compliance Orders and Noncompliance Penalties 170

Emergency Authority 171

Ozone Protection 172

Motor Vehicle Emission Control 172

Introduction 172

Statutory Standards and Suspension 173

Certification 175

Compliance by Production Vehicles 175

Assembly Line Testing 176

Warranties 176

Recall 177

Vehicle Inspection 177

Enforcement 178

Fuel and Fuel Additive Provisions 178

Registration 178

Regulatory Authority 179

Aircraft Emission Control 181

Citizens Suits 182

Judicial Review 183

Acid Rain 184

Chapter 5 RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND RECOVERY ACT 187

Solid and Hazardous Wastes 187

Solid Waste Disposal and Resource Recovery Act 188

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976（RCRA） 189

General Provisions 190

Objectives of RCRA 190

Def initions 191

Guidelines 192

Office of Solid Waste and Authorities 193

Hazardous Waste Management 193

Identification of Hazardous Wastes 194

Hazardous Waste Lists 196

Hazardous Waste Characteristics 198

Ignitability 198

Corrosivity 198

Reactivity 199

Extraction Procedure （EP） Toxicity 199

Mixtures of Hazardous Wastes and Solid Wastes 199

Used， Reused， Recycled or Reclaimed Hazardous Wastes 200

Notification of Hazardous Waste Management Activities 200

Generators of Hazardous Waste 201

Small Generators 201

Requirements Imposed Upon Generators 202

Recordkeeping 203

90-Day Storage Exemption 204

Labels and Containers 204

Transporters of Hazardous Wastes 204

On-Site versus Off-Site 205

Transporter Requirements 205

Hazardous Waste Discharges 206

Enforcement 206

Treatment， Storage， and Disposal （T/S/D） 207

Active/Inactive Facility 208

Interim and Permitted Facilities 208

Exempt T/S/D’s 208

Standards of General Applicability 210

Standards For Specific Types of T/S/D Facilities 211

Standards for Special Types of T/S/D Facilities 212

Permits 212

State’s Hazardous Waste Programs 213

Inspection and Enforcement 214

State or Regional Solid Waste Plans 215

Role of the Department of Commerce 216

Federal Responsibilities 216

Citizen Participation and Other Provisions 216

Imminent and Substantial Endangerment Under RCRA 216

Employee Protection and Other Provisions 217

Research， Development， Demonstration， and Information 217

Implementation of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 218

Enforcement of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 218

State and Local Activity 219

Interstate Commerce and Solid Waste 219

“Bottle Bills” 220

Solid Waste Facility Siting 220

Prospectus 221

Chapter 6 TOXIC SUBSTANCES 223

Introduction 223

Problem of Unregulated Chemicals 224

The Need for a Toxic Substances Control Act 225

Legislative Background 226

Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 227

Premanufacture Notification--Statutory Provisions 227

Proposed PMN Regulations 229

Interim PMN Policy 230

Proposed Testing Guidelines Under Section 5 231

PMN Exemption: Section 5（h）（4） 231

Significant New Use Regulations （SNURs） 232

Rejection of PMNs 233

Inventory List: Section 8（b） 235

Reporting Requirements 239

Section 8（a） 239

Proposed 8（a） Regulation， 1980 239

Section 8（a） Final Regulations 240

Reporting of Health and Safety Studies: Section 8（d） 240

Reports of Health and Safety Studies 243

Hazard Reporting Requirements 244

Substantial Risk Notification: Section 8（e） 244

Significant Adverse Reactions: Section 8（c） 246

Testing Requirements 247

General Testing Requirements: Section 4（a） 247

Testing Reimbursement 249

Priority List for Chemical Testing 249

EPA’s Enforcement Role 253

PCB and CFC 255

Imminent Hazards: Section 7 255

PCB Regulation 256

Conf identiality 260

Citizen Enforcement and Legal Fees 262

Relationship of TSCA to Other Federal Laws 263

Existing Toxic Substances Laws 264

Clean Air Act 264

Water Pollution Act 265

Occupational Safety and Health dministration 266

Consumer Product Safety Commission 267

The Proposed Federal Cancer Policy 267

Goals of Proposed Federal Cancer Policy 267

Background of the Policy 268

Scientific Principles of the Cancer Policy 268

Implementation Regulations of the Cancer Policy 269

Conclusion 271

Chapter 7 FEDERAL REGULATION OF PESTICIDES 273

Background to the Federal Regulation of Pesticides 273

Early Efforts at Pesticide Regulations 273

Creation of the Environmental Protection Agency 275

Pesticide Statute 276

Key Provisions of the Federal Insecticide， Fungicide and Rodenticide Act 276

Registration Procedures 277

Federal Control Over Pesticide Use 278

Cancellation 279

Suspension 281

Ordinary Suspension 281

Emergency Suspension 283

Balancing Test in FIFRA 284

Trade Secrets 285

1972 Amendments to FIFRA 287

Indemnities 288

“Featherbedding” or “Me-Too” Registrants 289

Essentiality in Registration 292

Intrastate Registrations 293

Scientific Advisory Committees 294

Standing for Registration， Appeals， and Subpoenas 295

Judicial Appeals 297

Exports and Imports 299

Disposal and Recall 301

Experimental Use Permits 302

1975 Amendments to FIFRA 303

Need For FIFRA Renewal 304

Controversy over USDA’s Veto of EPA 304

Requirement of Consultation By EPA With USDA 305

Scientific Advisory Committees 306

Economic Impact On Agriculture Statement 307

Self-Certification of Private Applicators 308

1978 Amendments to FIFRA 309

Conditional Registration 309

Generic Pesticide Review 310

Greater State Authority 311

Compensation and Confidentiality 311

Efficacy 312

1980 Amendments to FIFRA 312

Two-House Congressional Veto Over EPA Regulations 312

Changes in the Function and Design of the Scientific Advisory Panel （SAP） 313

Legal Cases 313

Basic Cases 314

Label Restrictions: Theory and Practice 316

Administrator’s Flexibility 318

Concerning The Scientific Advisory Committee 318

Concerning The Administrative Law Judge 319

National Environmental Policy Act 320

Pesticide Regulation Under Other Federal Statutes 321

Pesticides Under the Food， Drug & Cosmetics Act 321

Clean Air Act of 1970 323

Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 324

Solid Waste Disposal Acts 325

Occupational Safety and Health Act 325

Federal Hazardous Substances Act 326

Federal Pesticide Monitoring Programs 326

The RPAR Process 327

Chapter 8 THE OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT 331

Introduction 331

Comparison of OSHA and EPA 331

Legislative Framework 332

Purpose of the Act 332

Coverage of the Act 333

Federal and State Employees 334

Health Standards 334

Slow Pace of Standards Development:The Noise Example 335

Standard Setting 336

Consensus Standards: Section 6（a） 336

Standards Completion Process 337

Permanent Standards， Section 6（b） 337

Emergency Temporary Standards 340

Safety Standards 341

Areas Covered by the Standards 342

Variances 344

Temporary Variances 344

Permanent Variances 345

Compliance and Inspections 345

Field Structure 345

Role of Inspections 345

Training and Competency of Inspectors 345

Citations 346

Willful Violations 346

Repeat Violations 347

State OSHA Program 347

The Concept 347

Critiques 348

Consultation 349

Overlapping Jurisdiction 350

Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission 351

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health 352

Reprisals Against Worker Complaints: Section 11（c） 353

Constitutional Challenges: Barlow Case 355

Appendix A: Outline of Key Provisions of OSH Act of 1970 357

Chapter 9 NOISE 363

Introduction 363

The Characteristics of Sound 364

Biological Effects of Noise 365

Physical Effects 365

Physiological Effects 367

OSHA Regulation of Noise 368

The Present OSHA Standard 369

Enforcement 371

OSHA Noise Hearings 371

Economic and Technical Feasibilility 374

Hearing Protection Devices 376

The Feasibility and Balancing Debate 376

The Long-Anticipated OSHA Noise Standard 379

Environmental Protection Agency Authority 380

The Noise Act of 1970 381

The Noise Control Act of 1972 381

Noise Sources and Criteria 383

Setting of Noise Emission Standards 383

Federal， State and Local Jurisdiction Under Section 6 385

Warranties 387

Advertising Restrictions 387

Labeling 387

Development of Low-Noise-Emission Products 388

Prohibitions and Penalties 389

Control of Transportation Noise 389

Aviation Noise 390

Railroad and Motor Carrier Noise Standards 392

EPA’s Coordination Role Within the Federal Government 393

Quiet Communities Act of 1978 394

Current Regulatory Actions on Noise 395

Regulatory Activity Concerning Noise in the Aviation Industry 395

Retrofit Of Existing Aircraft 396

Airports and Aircraft Operating Procedures 397

DOT’s Concorde Decision 400

FAA Noise Certification 403

Major Sources of Noise 403

Air Compressors 405

Trucks 407

Power Mowers 408

Garbage Truck Compactors 409

Wheel and Crawler Tractors 410

Buses 410

Snowmobiles 410

Motorcycles 411

EPA Motor Carrier Regulations 411

EPA Noise Standard For Railroads 412

Chapter 10 COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE COMPENSATION AND LIABILITY ACT 415

Overview 415

“Super” Funds 416

Key Purpose 416

Agency Responsibilities 416

Toxic Substances and Disease Registry 417

Reportable Quantities 418

Response and Clean Up Authority 419

National Contingency Plan 420

Revised National Contingency Plan 421

National Contingency Plan Scope and Definitions 421

Responsibilites Under The National Contingency Plan 422

Response Teams 422

National Response Center 423

Regional Contingency Plan 423

Oil Removal Under the National Contingency Plan 423

Response Actions and Cleanup of Hazardous Substances 424

National Priority List of Problem Sites 424

Removal and Remedial Action Under the National Contingency Plan 425

Cleanup Responsibilities Under the National Contingency Plan 425

Liability 426

Financial Responsibility 428

Vessels 428

Facilities 429

Motor Carriers 429

Claims and Penalties 429

Hazardous Substances Response Fund 429

Establishment of the Response Fund 429

Fund Uses 430

Procedures for Claims Against the Response Fund 431

Post-Closure Liability Trust Fund 432

Reports 432

Regulatory Authority 433

Judicial Review 433

Relationship to Other Laws 433

Assistant Administrator for Solid Waste 435

Chapter 11 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING 437

Introduction 437

Reasons for Conducting an Environmental Audit 439

Scope of the Environmental Audit 443

Designing the Environmental Audit 445

Audit Methodology 445

Substance-by-Substance Analysis 445

Unit Process Analysis 446

Methods of Disposal 447

Legal Requirements Checklist 448

Analysis of Policy and Organization Issues 449

Protecting the Confidentiality of the Audit 450

Composition of Audit Team 451

Conducting the Environmental Audit 452

Data Collection 452

Data Analysis 454

Audit Report 454

Conclusion 455

Chapter 12 LAND USE: MAJOR ISSUES IN THE CONTROL OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 457

Introduction 457

Background and Nature of the Problem 458

Siting Problems 460

Local Issues 461

State Law Requirements 462

State and Federal-State Planning 464

Statewide Land Use Planning 464

Land Use Planning for Specific Areas 465

Planning for Achievement of Categorical Pollution Control Objectives 466

Other Planning Requirements 470

Specific Federal Authorizations 470

Lead Agency Proceedings 472

Federal-State Coordination 472

“Third Party” Contracts 473

Legislated Procedures 473

Approach Under Existing Law 473

Participate in the Land Use Planning Process 474

Select Sites and Formulate Plans Based on a Detailed Understanding of the Siting Process 474

Structure the Procedure and Climate in Which the Siting Decision Will Be Made 475

File the Applications 475

Make the Reviewing Agencies Do It Right 475

Make Sure That Actual Construction Is in Accordance With Your Authorization and the Final EIS 476

Prospects For Change: Specific Siting Legislation 476

The Deepwater Port Example 476

Time Limitation 477

Single Coordinated Procedure 477

One Environmental Impact Statement Based on Identified Criteria 478

Problems With the Deepwater Port Act Approach 479

Specific Legislation Begets Stringent Criteria 479

“Time Limits” Can Be Illusory 480

It Is Difficult to Enforce the “One Window” Concept 480

The “One Environmental Impact Statement” Concept Failed 480

The Future of the Deepwater Port Approach 480

Conclusion 481

Table 12-1 Decision Matrix 482