Morpohology The Descriptive Analysis of Words Second EditionPDF电子书下载

1．INTRODUCTION TO MORPHOLOGY 1

1．1 Morphology 1

1．2 Principles of Descriptive Analysis 1

A．Descriptive Analysis Must Be Based upon What People Say 1

B．The Forms Are Primary,and the Usages Secondary 2

C．No Part of a Language Can Be Adequately Described without Reference to All Other Parts 2

D．Languages Are Constantly in the Process of Change 3

1．3 Relationship of Descriptive Linguistics to Historical and Comparative Linguistics 3

1．4 Terminology of Descriptive Linguistics 4

1．5 Arrangement of Contents of This Book 4

1．6 Language Problems in the Present Volume 5

2．THE IDENTIFICATION OF MORPHEMES 6

2．1 Morphemes as Minimal Units 6

2．11 Isolation of Morphemes by Comparing Forms 6

2．12 The Definition of the Morpheme 6

2．2 Principles Employed in the Identification of Morphemes 7

2．21 Principle 1 7

2．21．1 The Meaning of Principle 1 7

2．21．2 The Application of Principle 1 8

A．Steps in Procedure 8

B．Problems of Residues 9

C．The Tentative Nature of an Analyst＇s Correlations 10

D．Supplementary Problems Illustrative of Principle 1 11

2．22 Principle 2 14

2．22．1 The Meaning of Principle 2 14

2．22．2 The Application of Principle 2 15

A．Where the Sounds Involved Exhibit Some Phonetic Similarities 15

B．Where the Sounds Involved May Not Exhibit Phonetic Similarities 15

C．Where Sequences of Phonemes Are Involved 16

D．Problems Illustrative of Principle 2 17

E．Steps in Procedure for Problems Involving Principle 2 18

F．Writing up the Answers to Problems 19

G．Types of Phonological Environment Described in Terms of Processes 21

1．Assimilation 21

2．Dissimilation 23

3．Assimilation of Tonemes 24

4．Loss of Consonant Phonemes 26

5．Loss of Vowel Phonemes 30

6．Palatalization 35

H．Supplementary Problems Illustrative of Principle 2 37

2．23 Principle 3 41

2．23．1 The Meaning of Principle 3 42

2．23．2 The Application of Principle 3 44

A．Determination of Allomorphs by Complementary Distribution 44

B．Basis of Complementation 44

C．Degree of Phonological Difference between Allomorphs 44

D．Basic and Nonbasic Allomorphs 45

E．Types of Zero 46

F．Supplementary Problems Illustrative of Principle 3 46

2．24 Principle 4 54

2．24．1 The Meaning of Principle 4 54

2．24．2 The Application of Principle 4 55

2．25 Principle 5 55

A．Definition of Homophonous Forms 56

B．Definition of Related Forms 56

C．Types of Related Areas of Meaning 56

D．Types of Distributional Differences 57

E．Problems Illustrative of Principle 5 57

2．26 Principle 6 58

A．Condition 1 59

B．Condition 2 59

C．Condition 3 60

3．TYPES OF MORPHEMES 62

3．1 Internal Composition of Morphemes 62

3．11 Types of Phonemes Which Compose Morphemes 62

3．11．1 Morphemes Consisting of Segmental Phonemes 62

3．11．2 Morphemes Consisting of Suprasegmental Phonemes 62

3．11．3 Morphemes Consisting of Segmental and Suprasegmental Phonemes 65

3．12 Different Shapes and Sizes of Morphemes 65

3．13 Formal Relationships of the Parts of Morphemes 67

3．2 Formal Relationships of Morphemes to Each Other 68

3．21 Structural Relationships of Morphemes to Each Other 69

3．21．1 Additive Morphemes 69

3．21．2 Replacive Morphemes 71

3．21．3 Subtractive Morphemes 75

3．22 Positional Relationships of Morphemes to Each Other 76

4．THE DISTRIBUTION OF MORPHEMES 78

4．1 Significance of the Distribution of Morphemes 78

4．2 Types of Morphemes as Determined by Their Distribution 81

A．Bound vs．Free Forms 81

B．Roots vs．Nonroots 82

C．Roots vs．Stems 83

D．Nuclei vs．Nonnuclei 83

E．Nuclear vs．Peripheral Structures 84

F．Morphemes of the Same Order vs．Morphemes of Different Orders 84

G．Mutually Exclusive Morphemes 84

H．Mutually Obligatory Morphemes 84

I．Obligatory vs．Nonobligatory Morphemes 85

J．Closing vs．Nonclosing Morphemes 85

4．3 Formal Combining of Morphemes 85

4．4 Immediate Constituents 86

4．41 Significance of Immediate Constituents 86

4．42 Positional Relationships between Immediate Constituents 88

A．Continuous Nuclear and Peripheral Immediate Constituents 88

1．Continuous Nuclear and Peripheral Immediate Constituents 88

a．With All Successive Peripheral Constituents on One Side of the Nucleus 88

b．With Successive Peripheral Constituents on More than One Side of or within the Nucleus 89

2．Discontinuous Immediate Constituents－Nuclear,Peripheral,or Both 90

B．Combinations of More than Two Immediate Constituents 90

4．43 Principles of Procedure in Determining Immediate Constituents 90

4．43．1 Principle 1 91

4．43．2 Principle 2 91

4．43．3 Principle 3 92

4．43．4 Principle 4 92

4．43．5 Principle 5 92

4．44 Functional Relationships between Immediate Constituents 94

4．44．1 Endocentric vs．Exocentric Constructions 94

4．44．2 Coordinate vs．Subordinate vs．Noncoordinate and Nonsubordinate Constructions 95

4．5 Types of Morphological Structure 97

4．6 Primary Structural Layers 98

4．7 The Limits of Morphological Structures 102

4．71 Structural Contrasts 102

4．72 Phonological Criteria for Establishing the Limits of Morphological Structures 102

4．73 Distributional Criteria for Establishing the Limits of Morphological Structures 103

4．74 Overlapping between Phonological and Morphological Criteria 104

4．75 Overlapping between Morphological and Syntactic Distributional Data 104

4．76 The Practical Limits of the Word 106

5．STRUCTURAL CLASSES 107

5．1 Types of Structural Classes 107

5．11 Form Classes 107

5．12 Sequence Classes 108

5．13 Distribution Classes 110

5．13．1 Definitions of Significant Features 110

5．13．2 Types of Distributional Arrangements 111

5．13．21 Distributional Arrangements in Single Sequence Classes 111

5．13．21．1 Forms Occurring in Determiner-Determined Series 112

5．13．21．11 Structural Series with No Subclasses of Determiner and No Subclasses of Determined 112

5．13．21．12 Structural Series with Subclasses of Determiner and No Subclasses of Determined 112

5．13．21．13 Structural Series with No Subclasses of Determiner but Subclasses of Determined 117

5．13．21．14 Structural Series with Subclasses of Determiner and Subclasses of Determined 125

5．13．21．2 Forms Not Occurring in Determiner-Determined Series 127

5．13．22 Distributional Arrangements in Multiple Sequence Classes 130

5．2 Systems of Structural Classes 147

6．THE MEANING OF MORPHEMES AND SEQUENCES OF MORPHEMES 151

6．1 Semantic Principles 151

6．11 Principle 1 151

6．12 Principle 2 152

A．Nonlinguistic Environments 152

1．Objective Environments 152

2．Subjective Environments 152

B．Linguistic Environments 153

1．Structural Environments 153

2．Contextual Environments 154

6．13 Principle 3 157

6．2 The Use of Symbols 161

6．3 Definability of Meaning 161

6．4 Procedures in Determining the Meanings of Morphemes 162

6．5 The Labeling of Morphemes 165

6．6 Grammatical Categories Expressed by Bound Forms 166

6．7 The Meaning of Grammatical Sequences 174

7．FIELD PROCEDURES 175

7．1 Monolingual Approach 175

7．2 Bilingual Approach 178

7．21 The Data 178

7．21．1 Simple Object Words 178

7．21．2 Object Words in Possible Morphological Categories 180

7．21．3 Simple Process Words 181

7．21．4 Process Words in Possible Morphological Categories 182

7．21．5 Combinations of Object and Process Words 183

7．21．6 Texts 186

7．22 Recording the Data 188

7．23 The Informant 189

7．23．1 Dialect Differences among Informants 189

7．23．2 Qualifications of Informants 190

7．23．3 Handling of Informants 190

8．ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES 192

8．1 Relationship of Analytical to Field Procedures 192

8．2 Steps in Analytical Procedure 192

8．21 Initial Observations 192

8．21．1 Phonetic Observations 193

8．21．2 Identificational Observations 193

8．21．3 Distributional Observations 194

8．22 Filing of Data 195

8．22．1 Purpose of Filing Data 195

8．22．2 Form of the Filing Slip 195

8．22．3 Relationship of Filing to Analysis 196

8．22．4 Nature and Quantity of the Data to be Filed 198

8．22．5 Number of Files 199

8．22．6 Form of the Structural File 199

8．22．61 Morphophonemic Section 200

8．22．62 Morphology Section 200

8．3 Determining the Relative Order of Morphemes 205

8．4 Use of Arbitrary Symbols in Identifying Forms 207

9．THE DESCRIPTIVE STATEMENT OF THE MORPHOLOGY 222

9．1 Structural Difficulties 222

9．11 Illustrative Outlines 222

9．11．1 Chichewa,by Mark Hanna Watkins 223

9．11．2 Chiricahua Apache,by Harry Hoijer 225

9．11．3 Delaware,by C．F．Voegelin 226

9．11．4 French,by Robert A．Hall,Jr． 227

9．11．5 Hebrew,by Zellig S．Harris 229

9．11．6 Potawatomi,by Charles F．Hockett 230

9．11．7 Southern Paiute,by Edward Sapir 231

9．11．8 Tzeltal,by Marianna C．Slocum 234

9．11．9 Yuma,by A．M．Halpern 235

9．12 Discussion of Illustrative Outlines 237

9．2 Technical Difficulties 239

9．21 Systems of Outlining 239

9．22 Terminology 240

9．23 Types of Descriptive Statements 240

9．3 Illustrative Language Problems 243

APPENDIX 283

Part I:Supplementary Problems 283

A．Problems Supplementary to Section 2．22．2 283

A．1 Assimilation and Dissimilation 283

A．2 Medial Voicing 290

A．3 Final Unvoicing 290

A．4 Assimilation and Dissimilation of Tonemes 291

A．5 Reduction of Word-Medial Consonant Clusters 293

A．6 Reduction of Word-Final Consonant Clusters 296

A．7 Reduction of Vowel Sequences 297

A．8 ＂Weakening＂of Consonants 301

A．9 ＂Weakening＂of Vowels in Unstressed Syllables 302

A．10 Loss of Vowels in Unstressed Syllables 303

A．11 Differences of Vowel Length Due to Open and Closed Syllables 306

A．12 Compensatory Lengthening 306

A．13 Developed Phonemes 307

A．14 Palatalization 308

A．15 Nasalization 310

A．16 Verner＇s Phenomenon 311

A．17 Metathesis 312

B．Problems Supplementary to Section 2．23．2 313

C．Problems Supplementary to Chapter 3 315

D．Problems Supplementary to Chapter 5 320

E．Problems Supplementary to Chapter 6 324

Part II:Table of Phonetic Symbols 329

Part III:Phonemic Writing of English 332

BIBLIOGRAPHY 335

INDEX 339