OPTICAL NETWORKS: A PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVEPDF电子书下载

1 Introduction to Optical Networks 1

1.1 Telecommunications Networks 2

1.2 First-Generation Optical Networks 3

1.3 Multiplexing Techniques 5

1.4 Second-Generation Optical Networks 7

1.4.1 Services 7

1.4.2 Transparency 10

1.4.3 Competing Technologies 11

1.4.4 WDM Architectures 11

1.4.5 The Optical Layer 13

1.4.6 OTDM Architectures 14

1.5 System and Network Evolution 15

Summary 19

Further Reading 19

References 20

Ⅰ Technology 23

2 Propagation of Signals in Optical Fiber 25

2.1 Light Propagation in Optical Fiber 26

2.1.1 Geometrical Optics Approach 26

2.1.2 Wave Theory Approach 31

2.2 Loss and Bandwidth 41

2.3 Chromatic Dispersion 43

2.3.1 Chirped Gaussian Pulses 46

2.3.2 System Limitations 51

2.3.3 Controlling the Dispersion Profile 55

2.4 Nonlinear Effects 56

2.4.1 Self-Phase Modulation 59

2.4.2 Cross-Phase Modulation 62

2.4.3 Nonlinear Effects on Pulse Propagation 64

2.4.4 SPM-Induced Chirp for Gaussian Pulses 67

2.4.5 Four-Wave Mixing 70

2.5 Solitons 73

2.6 Soliton Pulse Propagation 75

Summary 76

Further Reading 77

Problems 78

References 80

3 Components 83

3.1 Couplers 83

3.1.1 Principle of Operation 84

3.1.2 Conservation of Energy 85

3.2 Isolators and Circulators 87

3.2.1 Principle of Operation 87

3.3 Multiplexers and Filters 90

3.3.1 Gratings 93

3.3.2 Bragg Gratings 97

3.3.3 Fiber Gratings 99

3.3.4 Fabry-Perot Filters 102

3.3.5 Multilayer Dielectric Thin-Film Filters 106

3.3.6 Mach-Zehnder Interferometers 108

3.3.7 Arrayed Waveguide Grating 112

3.3.8 Acousto-Optic Tunable Filter 115

3.4 Optical Amplifiers 119

3.4.1 Stimulated Emission 120

3.4.2 Spontaneous Emission 121

3.4.3 Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers 122

3.4.4 Praseodymium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers 126

3.4.5 Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers 126

3.4.6 Crosstalk in SOAs 130

3.5 Transmitters 131

3.5.1 Lasers 131

3.5.2 Light-Emitting Diodes 141

3.6 Detectors 144

3.6.1 Photodetectors 145

3.6.2 Front-End Amplifiers 150

3.7 Switches 152

3.7.1 Mechanical Switches 154

3.7.2 Electro-Optic Switches 155

3.7.3 Thermo-Optic Switches 155

3.7.4 Semiconductor Optical Amplifier Switches 156

3.7.5 Large Switches 156

3.8 Wavelength Converters 160

3.8.1 Optoelectronic Approach 162

3.8.2 Optical Gating 162

3.8.3 Cross-Gain Modulation 163

3.8.4 Cross-Phase Modulation 163

3.8.5 Wave Mixing 165

Summary 166

Further Reading 166

Problems 167

References 172

4 Modulation and Demodulation 177

4.1 Modulation 177

4.1.1 Signal Formats 178

4.2 Demodulation 180

4.2.1 An Ideal Receiver 180

4.2.2 A Practical Direction Detection Receiver 181

4.2.3 Front-End Amplifier Noise 183

4.2.4 APD Noise 183

4.2.5 Optical Preamplifiers 184

4.2.6 Bit Error Rates 186

4.2.7 Subcarrier Modulation and Multiplexing 191

4.2.8 Coherent Detection 192

Summary 195

Further Reading 195

Problems 196

References 200

5 Transmission System Engineering 203

5.1 System Model 203

5.2 Power Penalty 204

5.3 Transmitter 207

5.4 Receiver 208

5.5 Optical Amplifiers 209

5.5.1 Gain Saturation 210

5.5.2 Gain Equalization 210

5.5.3 Amplifier Cascades 213

5.5.4 Power Transients and Automatic Gain Control 214

5.5.5 Optical Supervisory Channel 216

5.6 Crosstalk 217

5.6.1 Intrachannel Crosstalk 218

5.6.2 Interchannel Crosstalk 221

5.6.3 Crosstalk in Networks 222

5.6.4 Bidirectional Systems 222

5.6.5 Crosstalk Reduction 224

5.6.6 Cascaded Filters 225

5.7 Dispersion 227

5.7.1 Chromatic Dispersion Penalty 228

5.7.2 Single-Mode Fiber Types 229

5.7.3 Dispersion Compensation 230

5.7.4 Polarization-Mode Dispersion （PMD） 232

5.8 Fiber Nonlinearities 234

5.8.1 Stimulated Brillouin Scattering 238

5.8.2 Stimulated Raman Scattering 240

5.8.3 Four-Wave Mixing 243

5.8.4 Self-/Cross-Phase Modulation 247

5.8.5 Dispersion Management 247

5.9 Wavelength Stabilization 248

5.9.1 Dynamic Range Issues in Networks 249

5.10 Overall Design Considerations 250

5.10.1 Fiber Type 250

5.10.2 Transmit Power and Amplifier Spacing 250

5.10.3 Interchannel Spacing and Number of Wavelengths 250

5.10.4 All-Optical Networks 251

5.10.5 Wavelength Planning 252

5.10.6 Transparency 254

Summary 254

Further Reading 254

Problems 255

References 259

Ⅱ Networks 263

6 First-Generation Optical Networks 265

6.1 SONET/SDH 265

6.1.1 Multiplexing 267

6.1.2 Elements of a SONET/SDH Infrastructure 269

6.1.3 SONET/SDH Physical Layer 272

6.2 Computer Interconnects 273

6.2.1 ESCON 273

6.2.2 Fiber Channel 275

6.2.3 HIPPI 275

6.3 Metropolitan-Area Networks 275

6.3.1 FDDI 275

6.3.2 ATM 276

6.3.3 IP 277

6.4 Layered Architecture 278

6.4.1 SONET/SDH Layers 283

6.4.2 Second-Generation Optical Network Layers 284

Summary 286

Further Reading 287

Problems 287

References 288

7 Broadcast and Select Networks 291

7.1 Topologies for Broadcast Networks 291

7.1.1 Interconnected Stars 295

7.2 Media-Access Control （MAC） Protocols 296

7.2.1 Synchronization 298

7.2.2 Slotted Aloha/Slotted Aloha 300

7.2.3 DT WDMA 307

7.2.4 Scheduling Protocols 310

7.2.5 Scheduling Deterministic Traffic 313

7.2.6 Scalability and Traffic Classes 314

7.3 Testbeds 315

7.3.1 Lambdanet 316

7.3.2 NTT’s Testbed 316

7.3.3 Rainbow 316

7.3.4 STARNET 318

7.3.5 BBC Television Studio Testbed 319

7.3.6 Lightning 320

7.3.7 Supercomputer Supernet Testbed 322

Summary 322

Further Reading 323

Problems 323

References 326

8 Wavelength Routing Networks 329

8.1 The Optical Layer 333

8.2 Node Designs 336

8.2.1 Degree of Wavelength Conversion 337

8.2.2 Multiple Fiber Networks 339

8.2.3 Degree of Transparency 340

8.2.4 Realizations 341

8.3 Network Design and Operation 345

8.3.1 Traffic Models and Performance Criteria 345

8.3.2 Network Types： Static or Reconfigurable 350

8.4 Optical Layer Cost Tradeoffs 359

8.5 Routing and Wavelength Assignment 365

8.5.1 Relationship to Graph Coloring 368

8.5.2 Offline RWA： Maximum Load Model 370

8.5.3 Online RWA in Rings： Maximum Load Model 374

8.5.4 Online RWA： Statistical Model 376

8.6 Architectural Variations 384

Summary 388

Further Reading 389

Problems 389

References 393

9 Virtual Topology Design 399

9.1 The Virtual Topology Design Problem 401

9.2 Combined SONET/WDM Network Design 405

9.3 An Integer Linear Programming Formulation 406

9.4 Regular Virtual Topologies 411

9.4.1 Shufflenets 414

9.5 Implementation in Broadcast and Select Networks 415

Summary 418

Further Reading 418

Problems 418

References 420

10 Control and Management 423

10.1 Network Management Functions 423

10.2 Configuration Management 426

10.2.1 Equipment Management 427

10.2.2 Connection Management 428

10.3 Performance Management 428

10.4 Fault Management 430

10.4.1 Protection Concepts 430

10.4.2 Ring Networks 434

10.4.3 Mesh Networks 442

10.4.4 Handling Node Failures 444

10.4.5 Interworking Between Layers 446

10.5 Optical Safety 451

10.5.1 Open Fiber Control Protocol 452

10.5.2 Systems with Optical Amplifiers 454

10.6 Service Interface 455

10.6.1 Data Communication Interface 455

10.6.2 Control and Management Interface 456

10.6.3 WDM Multivendor Interoperability 458

Summary 458

Further Reading 459

Problems 459

References 461

11 Wavelength Routing Testbeds 463

11.1 Africa ONE/Sea Me We-3 465

11.2AON 467

11.3 NTT Ring 469

11.4 MWTN 471

11.5 ONTC 472

11.6 Alcatel’s WDM Ring 474

11.7 MONET 476

Summary 477

Further Reading 478

Problems 478

References 478

12 Access Networks 481

12.1 Network Architecture Overview 482

12.2 Today’s Access Networks 484

12.3 Future Access Networks 486

12.3.1 HFC 487

12.3.2 FTTC 488

12.4 Optical Access Network Architectures 489

Summary 497

Further Reading 497

Problems 498

References 498

13 Deployment Considerations 501

13.1 Upgrading Transmission Capacity 501

13.1.1 The SDM Approach 502

13.1.2 The TDM Approach 502

13.1.3 The WDM Approach 503

13.1.4 Trading SONET Against WDM 507

13.2 Application Areas 507

13.2.1 Interexchange Networks 507

13.2.2 Undersea Networks 508

13.2.3 Local-Exchange Networks 508

13.2.4 Enterprise Links 509

13.3 Equipment Design Requirements 510

Summary 511

Further Reading 511

Problems 511

References 512

14 Photonic Packet Switching 515

14.1OTDM 516

14.2 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing 518

14.2.1 Bit Interleaving 519

14.2.2 Packet Interleaving 521

14.2.3 Optical AND Gates 523

14.3 Synchronization 528

14.3.1 Tunable Delays 529

14.3.2 Optical Phase Lock Loop 530

14.4 Broadcast OTDM Networks 531

14.5 Switch-Based Networks 532

14.5.1 Functions of a Routing Node 533

14.5.2 Deflection Routing 536

14.5.3 Feed-Forward and Feedback Delay Lines 540

14.6 OTDM Testbeds 541

14.6.1 ATMOS 542

14.6.2 BT Labs Testbeds 543

14.6.3 Princeton University TestbeD 543

14.6.4 AON 544

14.6.5 CORD 545

14.6.6 TBONE 546

Summary 546

Further Reading 547

Problems 548

References 549

Ⅲ Appendices 553

A Symbols and Parameters 555

B Decibel Units 559

C Nonlinear Polarization 561

D Random Processes 563

D.1 Random Variables 563

D.1.1 Gaussian Distribution 564

D.1.2 Maxwell Distribution 565

D.1.3 Poisson Distribution 565

D.2 Random Processes 566

D.2.1 Poisson Random Process 567

D.2.2 Gaussian Random Process 568

Further Reading 568

References 568

E Multilayer Thin-Film Filters 569

E.1 Wave Propagation at Dielectric Interfaces 569

E.2 Filter Design 573

References 576

F Receiver Noise Statistics 577

F.1 Shot Noise 579

F.2 Amplifier Noise 580

References 582

G Graph Theory 583

G.1 Walks and Cycles 583

G.2 Planarity 583

G.3 Connectivity 585

Further Reading 585

References 585

H WDM Link MIB 587

Bibliography 589

Index 613