Patterns in crimePDF电子书下载

1 Patterns in Crime 1

Introduction 1

Criminology and Criminal Justice 1

Criminology 2

Descriptive Science 2

Formal Logical Science 3

Creative Science 4

Elements of Criminology: The Empirical Science 4

Descriptive Studies of Crime 5

Criminal Law 5

The Criminal Justice System 5

Motivation 6

Criminal Justice 11

Process Issues 11

Content Issues 14

Crime Patterns, Criminology, and Criminal Justice 19

Criminal politics 19

Criminality 19

Criminal Justice System 19

Criminal Events 20

Patterns in Crime 20

Chapter Summary 21

2 Personal Descriptions of Crime 23

Introduction 23

Personal Descriptions of Crime 24

Memoirs 24

Clustered Personal Accounts 27

Systematic Observation 28

Problems with Personal Accounts of Crime 28

Chapter Summary 31

3 Criminal Justice System Records of Crime 32

Introduction 32

Criminal Justice System Structures 33

Outlines of the Criminal Justice Systems in England, Canada, and the United States 34

Criminal Jurisdiction and Criminal Codes 34

Police Organization 35

Prosecution and Defense 36

Criminal Court Organization 36

Correctional System 37

Crime Statistics 38

Judicial Statistics 38

Correctional Statistics 39

Police Statistics 40

Enumerating Crimes 41

Problems with Crime Statistics 41

Defining Crime 42

Case Filtration 43

Problems with Judicial Data 44

Definitional Problems 44

Information Distortion 45

Policy Variations 45

Problems with Police Data 46

Selection and Categorization 46

The Dark Figure of Criminality 49

The Dark Figure of Recording 51

Additional Technical Problems 53

Chapter Summary 56

4 Surveys of Crime 58

Introduction 58

Self-report Studies 58

Problems with Self-report Data 60

Noncomparability 60

Reliability, Validity, and Fair Inference 61

Victimization Surveys 69

The President's Commission Studies: 1965-1967 70

The National Crime Survey 72

Victimization Surveys in Canada 74

Problems with Victimizations Surveys 75

Coverage 75

Comparability 76

Memory Effects 79

Validation Problems 80

Chapter Summary 81

5 Using the Sources of Information About Crime 83

Introduction 83

Assessing Single-Source Information 84

Uniform Crime Reports and Victimization Surveys 84

Homicide Statistics 84

Intercity Correlations 85

Ecological Patterns 86

Commercial Crime and Commercial Victimization 87

Consistency of Reporting Rates 87

Crime Pattern Comparison 88

Self-report, Victimization, and Police Statistics 88

Police Statistics and Other Criminal Justice Statistics 89

Using Multiple-Source Information About Crime 90

Chapter Summary 92

6 Temporal Analysis of Crime 93

Introduction 93

Pattern Analysis 93

Overall Visual Inspection 93

Time-Scale Analysis 95

Graphical Analysis 96

Graphical Manipulation 100

Numerical Analysis 102

Basic Time Series Model 104

Basic Statistical Techniques 107

Regression Analysis of Time Series 112

Chapter Summary 117

7 Modern Temporal Patterns in Crime 119

Introduction 119

Trends Since 1960 in the United States, Canada, and England 120

The United States 120

Canada 131

Comparison of U.S. and Canadian Crime Patterns 136

England and Wales 136

Explanation of Recent Trends 139

Demographic Factors 140

Economic Factors 146

Social Factors 149

Opportunity Factors 155

Criminal-Justice-System Factors 158

Chapter Summary 160

8 Long-Term Patterns in Crime 161

Introduction 161

Data Sources About Historical Crime Patterns 161

Long-Term Crime Patterns in England 162

Crime in Medieval England 162

Crime in Early Modern England: 1550-1700 168

Crime in the Eighteenth Century 172

Crime in the Nineteenth Century 176

Crime in the Twentieth Century 177

Long-Term Crime Patterns in America 180

Crime in the Seventeenth Century 180

Crime in the Eighteenth Century 182

Crime in the Nineteenth Century 185

Crime in the Twentieth Century 188

Long-Term Crime Patterns in Canada 191

Crime Trends 192

The Crime Mix: 1880-1970 195

Long-Term Crime Trends: Approaches to Explanation 196

The Decline in English Homicide Rates 196

The Long Cycles in Crime 199

The Anomalous Canadian Crime Pattern 207

Structural Changes and Crime 209

Chapter Summary 210

9 Spatial Analysis of Crime 211

Introduction 211

Analysis of Absolute Locations 212

Point Data 213

Mapping 213

Analysis of Relative Locations 221

Center of Mass 221

Nearest-Neighbor Analysis 222

Statistical Analysis 224

Problems with Spatial Units 224

Ecological Fallacy 228

Analysis of Flow Data 231

Analysis of Nodes and Routes 233

Distance-Decay Modeling 237

Gravity-Potential Modeling 238

Graph Theory 240

Diffusion Modeling 243

Spatial Theories 244

Macroanalysis 245

Mesoanalysis 245

Microanalysis 247

Chapter Summary 249

10 Macrospatial and Mesospatial Patterns in Crime 251

Introduction 251

The World Crime Pattern in Recent Years 251

Explanations for the World Crime Pattern 258

Crime Patterns Within Three Common Law Countries 261

Regional Studies in the Nineteenth Century 261

Regional Crime Patterns in England and Wales 265

Regional Crime Patterns in Canada 268

Regional Crime Patterns in the United States 274

Intermetropolitan Crime Patterns 279

City Size and Crime Rates 280

Socioeconomic Predictors of Intermetropolitan Crime Patterns 285

Chapter Summary 295

11 Crime Within Cities 297

Introduction 297

Historical Intraurban Crime Patterns 297

The Rookeries of London 298

Crime and Criminal Areas in Nineteenth-Century American Cities 301

Intracity Crime Patterns in the Nineteenth Century 304

The Social Ecology of Crime: The Chicago Model 305

The Chicago Model Applied to Crime: Shaw and McKay 307

Erosion of the Zonal Model of Criminal Area Distribution 312

Recent Intraurban Crime Patterns 319

England and Wales 319

Canada 326

United States 328

Chapter Summary 330

12 Microspatial Analysis of Crime 332

Introduction 332

Environment 332

Behavior 335

Spatial Behavior 336

Basic Model of Target Selection 337

Proposition Ⅰ: Multistaged Search Behavior 338

Proposition Ⅱ: Cue-Emitting Potential of the Environment 340

Proposition Ⅲ: Crime Cues 340

Proposition Ⅳ: Template Construction 341

Proposition Ⅴ: Relative Endurance of a Crime Template 343

Proposition Ⅵ: Limited Number of Templates 343

Criminal Spatial Behavior 344

Crime Trips 344

Distance Perception 346

Activity Spaces 349

Awareness Spaces 352

Formation of an Awareness Space 355

Aggregate Criminal-Spatial Behavior 355

Cognitive Maps 358

Perceived Crime Locations 360

Target Distribution: Opportunity Space 361

Crime Occurrence Space 363

Chapter Summary 365

Bibliography 367

Index 391