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CHAPTER 1

§1.1 Why Begin Here? 1

§1.4.1 Ownership or Consent 1 1

Intentional Torts 1

Summary of ContentsContents xiiiPreface xxviiIntroduction xxixShort Reference List xxxviiCHAPTER 1 Intentional Torts 1

CHAPTER 2

CHAPTER 3

A．COMPLETED HARMS 3

§1.2 The Core Cases of Intent 3

§1.3.1 Informal Settings 4

CHAPTER 4

§1.3 Beyond the Core：The Two Tiers of Intention 4

CHAPTER 5

Appendix 1 5

CHAPTER 6

CHAPTER 7

§1.8 The Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress byExtreme and Outrageous Conduct 1 7

CHAPTER 8

§1.3.2 Formal Settings 8

CHAPTER 9

§1.3.2.1 Medical Injuries 9

§1.3.2.2 Athletic Iniuries 9

CHAPTER 10

§1.4 Mistake 11

CHAPTER 11

CHAPTER 12

§1.4.2 Mistake as to Consequences 13

§1.5 Transferred Intent 13

CHA PTER 13

§1.6 Assault 14

B．HARMS TO OTHER PROTECTED INTERESTS 14

CHAPTER 14

CHAPTER 15

§1.7 Offensive Battery and Offensive Language 16

CHAPTER 16

CHAPTER 17

CHAPTER 18

§1.9 False Imprisonment 19

CHAPTER 19

CHAPTER 20

CHAPTER 21

CHAPTER 22

§1.10.1 History and Scope 22

§1.10 Trespass to Land 22

§1.10.2 Scope of Possession 24

§1.10.3 Vertical Dimensions of Trespass 25

§1.10.4 Remedies 27

§1.10.5 Defendant s Conduct 27

ContentsPrefce 27

§1.11 Trespass to Chattels 28

Introduction 29

§1.12 Conversion 31

§1.12.1 Scope of Wrong 31

§1.12.2 History 33

§1.12.3 Specialized Cases of Conversion 34

Short Reference List 37

§1.12.4 Remedy 37

CHAPTER 2 Defenses to Intentional Harms 39

Defenses to Intentional Harms 39

§2.1 Introduction and Overview 39

§2.3 Proof of Consent 40

§2.2 The Role of Consent 40

§2.4 Scope of Consent 41

§2.5 Overriding Consent 42

§2.6 Duress and Fraud 42

§2.7.1 Statutory Rape 44

§2.7 Consent to Illegal Acts 44

§2.7.2 Illegal Prize Fights 45

§2.7.3 Voluntary Euthanasia 46

§2.8 Incompetence 47

§2.9 Insanity 50

§2.10 Defense of Person and Property:General 51

§2.11 Self-Defense 52

§2.12 Defense of Real Property 54

§2.12.1 When Defendant is Present 55

§2.12.2 Spring Guns 56

§2.1 3 Recapture of Chattels and Eviction of Tenants 57

§2.14 Necessity 59

§2.15 Private Necessity 60

§2.15.1 The Privilege 60

§2.15.2 Compensation 63

§2.16 Public Necessity 65

§2.17 General Average Contribution 66

§2.18 Rescue of Property 67

Strict Liability and Negligence:History 69

§3.1 Preliminaries 69

CHAPTER 3 Strict Liability and Negligence:History 69

§3.2 Early History 70

§3.3 Trespass andActions on the Case 75

§3.4 The Reformist Impulse 78

Strict Liability and Negligence:Conceptual Foundations 85

§4.1 The Terms of Debate 85

CHAPTER 4 Strict Liability and Negligence:ConceptualFoundations 85

§4.2 Stranger Cases:Corrective Justice 86

§4.3 Liability and Economic Growth 89

§4.4 Efficiency Analysis:The Single Actor 91

§4.5 Separate Actor and Victim:Perfect Enforcement 93

§4.6 Imperfect Enforcement 95

§4.7 Activity Levels and Care Levels 96

§8.5 Function and Classification 1 97

§4.8 Error Costs 97

§4.9 The Principles Illustrated 99

§4.10 Highway Cases 101

§4.11 Consensual Cases 102

Negligence:Reasonable Peopleand Unreasonable Risks 109

§5.1 The Elements of Negligence 109

CHAPTER 5 Negligence:Reasonable People and UnreasonableRisks 109

§5.2 Personal Characteristics in Stranger Cases:Intelligenceand Discretion 111

§5.3 Knowledge 113

§5.4 Beginners and Experts 114

§5.5 Coordination with Other Actors 115

§5.6 Wealth 116

§5.7 Infancy 117

§5.8 Old Age 119

§5.9 Insanity 120

§5.10 Physical Disabilities 121

§5.11 Asymmetry Between Negligence andContributory Negligence 122

§5.12 Bailments 123

§5.13 Guest Statutes 126

§5.14 Landowner s Liability 129

§5.15 Medical Care 129

§5.16 Unreasonable Risks 129

§5.17 Emergency and Necessity 132

A．CUSTOM 135

Negligence:Custom and Statute 135

§6.1 General Principles 135

CHAPTER 6 Negligence:Custom and Statute 135

§6.2 Medical Customs 140

§6.3 Informed Consent 143

B．STATUTES AND ADMINISTRATIVE RULES 146

§6.4 As a Source of Negligence Liability 146

§6.5 As a Defense Against Liability 155

§6.6 Federal Preemption 157

CHAPTER 7 Proof of Negligence 163

ProofofNegligence 163

§7.1 Judge andJury 163

§7.2 Presumptions and Burdens 170

§7.3 Res Ipsa Loquitur:Rationale and Historical Background 171

§7.4 Identification—or Who Done It 173

§7.5 Chain of Custody 175

§7.6 Plaintiff s Contribution 177

§7.7 Is Negligence the Standard? 177

§7.8 When Negligence Is the Standard 179

§7.9 Medical Malpractice 182

§7.10 Procedural Effects 184

CHAPTER 8 Plaintiff s Conduct 187

Plaintiff s Conduct 187

A．CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE 188

§8.1 History and Scope of the Defense 188

§8.2.1 Duty 189

§8.2 The Elements of Contributory Negligence 189

§8.2.2 Standard of Care 191

§8.2.3 Causation 194

§8.3 Imputed Contributory Negligence 194

§8.4 Last Clear Chance 195

B．ASSUMPTION OF RISK 197

§8.6 Express Assumption of Risk 198

§8.6.1 History:Industrial Accidents 198

§8.6.2 Modern Applications 200

§8.7 Implied Assumption of Risk 203

§8.7.1 Industrial Accidents and the FellowServant Rule 204

§8.7.2 Modern Applications 206

§8.8 Primary and Secondary Assumption of Risk 207

C．CONTRIBUTORY AND COMPARATIVE NEGLIGENCE 209

§8.9 The Common Law Bar 209

§8.10 Comparative Negligence 211

§8.11 Doctrinal Adjustments 212

§8.12 The Mechanics of Comparative Negligence 214

§8.13 Assessment of the Different Apportionment Rules 214

§8.14 Multiple Parties 218

Multiple Tortfeasors 221

CHAPTER 9 Multiple Tortfeasors 221

§9.1 Joint Enterprise and Intentional Harm 222

§9.2 Joint Causes 223

§9.3 Alternative Liability 226

§9.4 Market Share Liability 227

§9.5 Contribution 230

§9.6 Settling Tortfeasor versus Nonsettling Tortfeasor 231

§9.7 Nonsettling Tortfeasor versus Setting Tortfeasor 232

§9.8 Indemnification 235

§9.9 Vicarious Liability 237

§9.10 Scope of Employment 240

§9.10.1 Frolic and Detour 240

§9.10.2 Intentional Torts 241

§9.10.3 Divided Control 242

§9.11 Independent Contractors 243

CHAPTER 10 Causation 247

Causation 247

A．CAUSATION-IN-FACT 248

§10.1 The Two Sides of Causation 248

§10.2 Direct and Indirect Causation 248

§10.4 Lost Chance and Probabilities 251

§10.3 Negligence and Causation 251

§10.5 Medical,Toxic,and Mass Torts 254

§10.6 But for Causation 258

B．PROXIMATE CAUSATION 258

§10.7 Coincidence and Causation 260

§10.8 Joint Causation 262

§10.9 Directness and Foresight 263

§10.10 Causal Intervention:The Last Wrongdoer Test 264

§10.11 Modern Causal Theories 265

§10.11.1 Normal Forces 265

§10.11.2 Acts Under Compulsion 266

§10.11.3 Intervening Actions 267

§10.11.4 Natural Events 269

§10.12 Foreseeability 269

§10.13 Foreseeable Plaintiffs 272

C．SPECIAL CASES 273

§10.14 Negligent Infliction of Emotional Distress(NIED) 273

§10.15 Emotional Distress Without Physical Impact 274

§10.16 Direct Victims 279

§10.17 NIED:Final Assessment 280

§10.18 Prenatal Injuries 281

§10.19 Wrongful Life and Wrongful Birth 282

Affirmative Duties 285

§11.1 Marking the Field 285

CHAPTER 11 Affirmative Duties 285

§11.2 The Duty to Rescue 287

§11.3 Specialized Duties to Rescue 290

§11.3.1 Tort-like Exceptions 291

§11.3.2 Voluntary Undertakings 292

§11.3.3 Special Relationships 295

§11.3.3.1 When Does the Duty Arise? 297

§11.3.3.2 ToWhom Is the DutyOwed? 298

§11.3.3.3 Level of Precautions 298

§11.3.3.4 Causation 299

§11.4 Evaluation 300

§11.3.3.5 Plaintiff s Conduct 300

§11.5 Prevention of Harm by Third Parties 303

§11.6 Constitutional Overtones 306

Owner s and Occupier s Liability 309

CHAPTER 12 Owner s and Occupier s Liability 309

§12.1 Liability of Occupier to Persons Offthe Property 310

§12.2 Entrants on the Land:Classification 312

§12.3 Trespassers 313

§12.4 Liabilities of Nonowners to Trespassers 317

§12.5 Child Trespassers 318

§12.6 Licensees—At Common Law 320

§12.7 Licensees—By Statute 322

§12.8 Invitees 323

§12.9 Landlord and Tenant 324

§12.10 Privileged Entrants 327

§12.11 Challenges to the Common Law Classification 329

CHAPTER 13 Traditional Strict Liability 333

Traditional Strict Liability 333

§13.1 Fire 334

§13.2.1 Domestic and Wild Animals 336

§13.2 Animals 336

§13.2.2 Cattle Trespass 341

§13.2.3 Fencing 343

§13.3 Ultrahazardous or Abnormally Dangerous Activities 344

§13.4 Causation and Defenses 351

Nuisance 355

A．PRIVATE NUISANCES 355

§14.1 Background and General Principles 355

CHAPTER 14 Nuisance 355

§14.2 The Basic Tort 358

§14.3 The Act Requirement 358

§14.4 Basis ofLiability 360

§14.5 Causation 363

§14.6 Affirmative Defenses 363

§14.6.1 Extrasensitivity 363

§14.6.2 Coming to the Nuisance 365

§14.7 Remedies 366

§14.7.1 Damages 367

§14.7.2 Injunctions 369

§14.8 Multiple Parties and Transactional Obstacles 371

§14.9 Nonactionable Physical Invasions 372

§14.10 Noninvasive Nuisances 375

§14.11 General Principles 378

B．PUBLIC NUISANCES 378

CHAPTER 15 Products Liability:Theory and History 381

Products Liability:Theory and History 381

§15.1 Background and Origins:Setting the Stage 381

§15.2 Warranties in a Contract World 382

§15.3 Privity and Remote Plaintiffs 384

§15.4 Early Warranty Law 385

§15.5 Nineteenth Century Privity 386

§15.6 From Negligence to Strict Liability 389

§15.7 Implied Warranty 392

CHAPTER 16 Modern Products Liability Law 395

Modern Products Liability Law 395

A．COVERED TRANSACTIONS 395

§16.1 Modern Overview 395

§16.2 What Is a Product? 396

§16.3 Proper Defendants:The Cast of Characters 397

§16.4 Wholesalers,Distributors,and Retailers 399

§16.5 Successor Liability 400

§16.6 Resellers of Used and Reconditioned Products 402

§16.7 Potential Plaintiffs 403

§16.8 Covered Harms 404

§16.9 General Considerations 406

§16.10 Manufacturing Defects 406

B．PRODUCT DEFECTS 406

§16.11 Design Defects 407

§16.11.1 Evolution 407

§16.1 1.2 Open and Obvious Dangers 408

§16.11.3 Consumer Expectations 409

§16.11.4 Statutory Standards 411

§16.11.5 State ofthe Art 411

§16.11.6 Reasonable Alternative Designs 412

§16.11.7 Cautionary Words 414

§16.12 Warnings and Instructions 416

§16.12.1 Relation to Design Defects 416

§16.12.2 The Reasonableness Standard 418

§16.12.3 The Scope of the Duty:Who and Whom? 418

§16.12.4 The Scope ofthe Duty:How? 419

§16.12.5 Duty to Warn:What? 421

§16.12.6 When? 424

§16.13 Express Misrepresentations 425

§16.14 Causation 425

§16.14.1 General 425

§16.14.2 Manufacturing Defects 426

§16.14.3 Design Defects 428

§16.14.4 Warnings and Instructions 428

C．DEFENSES 429

§16.15 Plaintiff s Conduct 429

§16.16 Waivers and Disclaimers 432

§16.17 Federal Preemption 433

CHAPTER 17 Damages 435

A．ACTUAL DAMAGES 435

§17.1 The Role ofTort Damages 435

Damages 435

§17.2 Nonpecuniary Injuries 437

§17.3 Medical Expenses 441

§17.4 Economic Losses:Lost Earnings 443

§17.5 Imputed Income 443

§17.6 Future Losses 444

§17.6.1 Longevity 444

§17.6.2 Discounting 445

§17.6.3 Inflation 445

§17.6.4 Structured Settlements 447

§17.7 Mitigation of Damages 447

§17.8 Taxation of Damages 448

§17.9 Collateral Sources 449

§17.10 Loss of Consortium 451

§17.11 Wrongful Death 453

§17.11.1 Creation 453

§17.11.2 Damages 455

§17.12 Survival Actions 457

B．PUNITIVE DAMAGES 458

§17.13 Overview 458

§17.14 Theoretical Justifications 458

§17.15 Vicarious Liability 462

§17.16 MassTorts 464

§17.17 Legislative Reforms 464

§17.18 Constitutional Challenges 465

Defamation 467

A．THEORY AND HISTORY 467

§18.1 A Triangular Tort 467

CHAPTER 18 Defamation 467

§18.2 History of Defamation 470

§18.3 Publication 473

B．ELEMENTS OF THE CAUSE OF ACTION 473

§18.3.1 General Requirements 473

§18.3.2 Republication 475

§18.3.3 Mass Publication 477

§18.4 What Is Defamation? 478

§18.4.1 Hatred,Contempt,and Ridicule 478

§18.4.2 Known Falsehoods 482

§18.4.3 Injurious Falsehood 482

§18.4.4 Product Disparagement 483

§18.4.5 Fact versus Opinion 484

§18.4.6 Actual or Intended Audience 486

§18.5 Of and Concerning the Plaintiff 487

§18.6 Group Libel 489

§18.7 Basis of Liability 490

§18.8 Libel and Slander 492

§18.8.1 Origins 492

§18.8.2 Slander Per Se 493

§18.8.3 Libel Per Se and Libel Per Quad 493

§18.8.4 Contemporary Survival 494

§18.9 Truth 495

§18.10 Damages:General and Special 497

§18.11 Other Remedies 501

§18.11.1 Self-Help 501

§18.11.2 Declaratory Judgment 502

§18.11.3 Injunctions 502

§18.11.4 Retraction 502

§18.11.5 Punitive Damages 503

§18.12 Privileges of the Private Sphere 504

C．DEFENSES 504

§18.13 Privileges in the Public Sphere 508

§18.14 Record Libel 510

§18.15 Fair Comment at Common Law 512

§18.16.1 Public Officials 513

§18.16 Constitutional Privilege 513

§18.16.2 Public Figures 516

Privacy 519

§19.1 Background and History 519

CHAPTER 19 Privacy 519

§19.2 Intrusion Upon Seclusion 522

§19.2.1 As Trespasses to Real and Personal Property 523

§19.2.2 Invasion of Privacy in the Absence of Trespass 528

§19.3 Appropriation of Name or Likeness:The Rightof Publicity 530

§19.3.1 Basic Theory 530

§19.3.2 For Advertising and the Purposes of Trade 532

§19.3.3 Meaning of Name or Likeness 534

§19.3.4 Protection After Death 536

§19.4 Embarrassing Disclosure of Private Facts 538

§19.5 False Light 542

Misrepresentation 545

A．FRAUDULENT MISREPRESENTATION 545

§20.1 Misrepresentation:Tort or Contract? 545

CHAPTER 20 Misrepresentation 545

§20.2 Fraud:History and Basic Cause ofAction 549

§20.3 Statements of Fact,Opinion,Intention,and Law 550

§20.4 Concealment 552

§20.5 Nondisclosure 553

§20.6 Parties Protected 559

§20.7 Basis of Liability:The Requirement of Scienter 560

§20.8 Causation 561

§20.9 Materiality or Justifiable Reliance 563

§20.10 Plaintiff s Conduct 565

§20.11 Damages in Fraud Cases 565

§20.12 The Elements of the Tort 568

B．NEGLIGENT MISREPRESENTATION 568

§20.13 From Fraud to Negligence:Why? 569

§21.1 Introduction and Overview 575

CHAPTER 21 Economic Harms 575

Economic Harms 575

§21.2 Elements and Origins 578

A．INDUCEMENT OF BREACH OF CONTRACT 578

§21.3 Justifications for the Tort:The Role of Efficient Breach 579

§21.4 Elements of Inducement of Breach of Contract 582

§21.4.1 Contracts Covered 582

§21.4.2 Contracts At Will 583

§21.4.3 Inducement 586

§21.4.4 Proper Parties 587

§21.4.5 Malice 588

§21.4.6 Causation 588

§21.4.7 Remedies 589

§21.5 Privileges for the Inducement of Breach 590

B．UNFAIR COMPETITION 594

§21.6 Interference with Prospective Advantage 594

§21.7 Malice and Combination 596

§21.8 Disparagement and Passing-Off 600

§21.9 Appropriation 602

C．NEGLIGENT INFLICTION OF ECONOMIC LOSS 606

§21.10 The Basic Problem 606

§21.11 Interference with Existing Contracts 607

§21.12 Pure Economic Loss to Strangers 608

Immunities 611

CHAPTER 22 Immunities 611

§22.1 A Polyglot Lot 611

§22.2 Husband and Wife 613

A．PRIVATE IMMUNITIES 613

§22.3 Parent and Child 615

§22.4 Charitable Immunity 617

B．IMMUNITIES IN THE PUBLIC SPHERE 619

§22.5 Background and History 619

§22.6 Federal Sovereign Immunity 620

§22.6.1 History and Structure 620

§22.6.2 Discretionary Function 621

§22.6.3 Miscellaneous Torts 624

§22.6.4 Incident to Military Service 625

§22.7 State Governments 627

§22.8 Local Governments 628

§22.9 Statutory Immunities for State and Local Governments 630

§22.10 Constititional Torts 633

§22.11 Official Immunity 634

§22.12 A Final Assessment 637

Table of Cases 641

Table of Cases 641

Bibliography 669

Bibliography 669

Table ofRestatement Provisions 681

Table ofRestatement Provisions 681

Index 689

Index 689