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PART Ⅰ GENERAL SURVEY 3

ONE SETTING 3

1．Grammar 3

2．Linguistic Universals 4

3．Phonetic Representations 5

4．Components of a Grammar 6

5．Surface Structures 7

5.1．Lexical and Phonological Representations 9

5.2．On the Abstractness of Lexical Representations 11

5.3．Analysis into Words 12

6．Summary 14

TWO A SKETCH OF ENGLISH PHONOLOGY AND PHONOLOGICAL THEORY 15

1．The Principle of the Transformational Cycle and Its Application to English Stress Contours 15

2．On the Reality of Phonetic Representation 24

3．The Transformational Cycle Within the Word 26

4．The Segmental Phonology of English—a First Approximation 28

5．More on the Transformational Cycle Within the Word 29

6．Particular and Universal Grammar 43

7．On the Abstractness of Lexical Representation 44

8．Vowel Alternations 50

PART Ⅱ ENGLISH PHONOLOGY 59

THREE THE TRANSFORMATIONAL CYCLE IN ENGLISH PHONOLOGY 59

1．Introductory Remarks 59

1.1．The Rules of the Phonological Component 60

1.2．Notational Conventions 61

1.3．Distinctive Features 64

1.3.1．Boundary Features 66

1.3.2．Segmental Features 68

2．Stress Placement in Verbs—a First Approximation 69

3．Stress Placement in Nouns—a First Approximation 71

4．Alternating Stress Rule 77

5．Stress Placement in Adjectives 79

6．Derivational Affixes 80

7．Summary of Stress Placement Rules 83

8．Nuclear Stress 89

9．Compounds 91

10．Complex Verbs 94

11．Nouns Derived from Verbs 96

12．Revised Version of the Main Stress Rule 98

13．Complex Nouns and Adjectives 100

14．Vowel Reduction 110

15．Further Investigation of Derivational Affixes 126

16．Stress as a Lexical Category 145

FOUR WORD-LEVEL PHONOLOGY 163

1．Introductory Remarks 163

2．Phonological and Phonetic Representation 164

2.1．Lexical Redundancy Rules 171

2.2．Treatment of Exceptions 172

3．The Features 177

4．Vowel Alternations 178

4.1．Alternations of Nonback Vowels 178

4.2．Alternations of Back Vowels 186

4.3．The Vowel Shift Rule 187

4.3.1．Refinements and Extensions of the Vowel Shift Rule 188

4.3.1.1．Rounding and Backness Adjustments 188

4.3.1.2．Rounding and Stress 190

4.3.2．Final Weak-Stressed [o] 190

4.3.3．The Diphthong [？y] 191

4.3.4．Prevocalic y-Glides 192

4.3.5．Vowel Shift for Lax Vowels 201

4.3.6．Further Remarks on Diphthongization 205

4.3.7．Further Remarks on Phonetically Low Vowels 205

4.3.8．Rounding Adjustment 217

5．Further Consequences of the Vowel Shift Rule 219

6．The Consonant System of English 223

FIVE SUMMARY OF RULES 236

1．Readjustment Rules 238

2．Phonological Rules 239

PART Ⅲ HISTORY 249

SIX THE EVOLUTION OF THE MODERN ENGLISH VOWEL SYSTEM 249

1．Introductory Remarks 249

1.1．On Linguistic Change 249

1.2．General Comments on the Early History of Modern English 252

1.3．Concerning Exchange Rules 256

2．John Hart（1551-1579） 259

2.1．The Evidence 260

2.2．Hart's Pattern 263

3．John Wallis（1653-1699） 266

3.1．The Evidence 266

3.2．Wallis'Pattern 268

4．Christopher Cooper（1687） 275

4.1．The Evidence 275

4.2．Cooper's Pattern 278

5．T.Batchelor（1809） 282

5.1．The Evidence 283

5.2．Batchelor's Pattern 284

PART Ⅳ PHONOLOGICAL THEORY 293

SEVEN THE PHONETIC FRAMEWORK 293

1．Phonetic Representation 293

1.1．Phonetic Transcription and the Speech Signal 293

1.2．Phonetic and Phonological Representation 295

2．The Phonetic Features 298

2.1．The Neutral Position 300

2.2．Vocal Cord Vibration—Spontaneoos and Otherwise 300

3．Major Class Features 301

3.1．Sonorant-Nonsonorant（Obstruent） 302

3.2．Vocalic-Nonvocalic 302

3.3．Consonantal-Nonconsonantal 302

4．Cavity Features 303

4.1．Primary Strictures 303

4.1.1．Coronal-Noncoronal 304

4.1.2．Anterior-Nonanterior 304

4.2．Features Relating to the Body of the Tongue:High-Nonhigh,Low-Nonlow,Back-Nonback 304

4.2.1．On the Relationship Between the Features"Diffuseness," "Compactness,"and"Gravity"and the Features of the Preceding Sections 306

4.2.2．Degrees of Narrowing in the Vocal Tract 308

4.3．Rounded-Nonrounded 309

4.4．Distributed-Nondistributed 312

4.5．Covered-Noncovered 314

4.6．Glottal Constrictions 315

4.7．Secondary Apertures 316

4.7.1．Nasal-Nonnasal 316

4.7.2．Lateral-Nonlateral 317

5．Manner of Articulation Features 317

5.1．Continuant-Noncontinuant（Stop） 317

5.2．Release Features:Instantaneous Release-Delayed Release 318

5.2.1．Release of Primary Closures 319

5.2.2．Release of Secondary Closures 319

5.2.3．Comments on the Release Features 321

5.3．Supplementary Movements 322

5.3.1．Suction 322

5.3.2．Pressure 323

5.3.3．Order of Releases in Sounds with Multiple Closures 324

5.4．Tense-Nontense（Lax） 324

6．Source Features 326

6.1．Heightened Subglottal Pressure 326

6.2．Voiced-Nonvoiced（Voiceless） 326

6.3．Strident-Nonstrident 329

7．Prosodic Features 329

EIGHT PRINCIPLES OF PHONOLOGY 330

1．On the Evaluation Procedure and the Form of Phonological Rules 330

2．Segments as Feature Complexes 335

3．The Ordering of the Rules 340

4．Variables as Feature Coefficients 350

5．Metathesis,Contraction,and Elision 358

6．Boundaries 364

6.1．Formative Boundary:＋ 364

6.2．The Boundary # and the Notion"Word" 366

6.3．The Boundary＝ 371

6.4．Boundaries as Units 371

6.5．Readjustment Rules 371

7．Diacritic Features 373

8．Lexical Representation 380

Appendix:Formalism 390

NINE EPILOGUE AND PROLOGUE:THE INTRINSIC CONTENT OF FEATURES 400

1．Some Unresolved Problems 400

2．A Theory of"Markedness" 402

2.1．The Marking Conventions 403

2.2．Conventions for the Major Categories 408

2.3．Conventions for Vowels and the Representation of Vowels in the Lexicon 408

2.4．Conventions for True Consonants and the Representation of Consonants in the Lexicon 411

2.5．Conventions for Liquids 414

2.6．Conventions for Glides 414

3．Markedness and Lexical Representation 414

4．Markedness and Phonological Rules:Linking 419

BIBLIOGRAPHY 437

INDEXES 447

Language Index 447

Word Index 449

Affix Index 462

Subject Index 464