朗文英语口语和笔语语法PDF电子书下载

SECTION A Introductory 1

1 Introduction: a corpus-based approach to English grammar 3

1.1 Introduction 4

1.2 Structure and use in English grammar 6

1.3 Varieties of English 15

1.4 Representation of varieties in the LSWE Corpus 24

1.5 Description of the register categories in the LSWE Corpus 29

1.6 Grammatical analysis of the LSWE Corpus 35

1.7 Quantitative findings in the grammar 38

1.8 Functional interpretation of quantitative findings 41

1.9 Overview of the grammar 44

1.10 Potential users and uses of the LGSWE 45

SECTION B Basic grammar: description and distribution 47

2 Word and phrase grammar 49

2.1 The nature of grammatical units 50

2.2 Words and their characteristics 51

2.3 Survey of lexical words 62

2.4 Survey of function words 69

2.5 Survey of inserts 93

2.6 Phrases and their characteristics 94

2.7 Types of phrase 96

2.8 Embedding of phrases 113

2.9 Coordination of phrases 113

2.10 Simple v. complex phrases 117

3 Clause grammar 119

3.1 Clause v. non-clausal material 120

3.2 Major clause elements 122

3.3 Clause links 134

3.4 Peripheral elements 136

3.5 Major clause patterns 141

3.6 Variations on clause patterns 152

3.7 Ellipsis 156

3.8 Negation 158

3.9 Subject-verb concord 180

3.10 Types of dependent clauses 192

3.11 Finite dependent clauses 193

3.12 Non-finite clauses 198

3.13 Major types of independent clauses 202

3.14 Unembedded dependent clauses 223

3.15 Non-clausal material 224

SECTION C Key word classes and their phrases 227

4 Nouns, pronouns, and the simple noun phrase 229

4.1 Overview of nominals in discourse 230

4.2 The basic structure of noun-headed phrases 240

4.3 Types of nouns 241

4.4 Determiners 258

4.5 Number 284

4.6 Case 292

4.7 Gender 311

4.8 Noun formation 318

4.9 The role of pronouns in discourse 327

4.10 Personal pronouns 328

4.11 Possessive pronouns 340

4.12 Reflexive pronouns 342

4.13 Reciprocal pronouns 346

4.14 Demonstrative pronouns 347

4.15 Indefinite pronouns 351

4.16 Other pronouns 355

5 Verbs 357

5.1 Major verb functions and classes 358

5.2 Single-word lexical verbs 360

5.3 Multi-word lexical verbs 403

5.4 Main and auxiliary functions of primary verbs 428

5.5 Copular verbs 435

6 Variation in the verb phrase: tense, aspect, voice, and modality 451

6.1 Structure and meaning distinctions in the verb phrase 452

6.2 Tense 453

6.3 Aspect 460

6.4 Active and passive voice 475

6.5 Complex combinations of aspect and voice 482

6.6 Modals and semi-modals 483

6.7 Combinations of modal verbs with marked aspect or voice 497

6.8 Sequences of modals and semi-modals 501

7 Adjectives and adverbs 503

7.1 Overview 504

7.2 Defining characteristics of adjectives 505

7.3 Semantic grouping of adjectives 508

7.4 Attributive adjectives 510

7.5 Predicative adjectives 515

7.6 Adjectives in other syntactic roles 518

7.7 Comparative and superlative degree 521

7.8 Comparative clauses and other degree complements 526

7.9 Formation of adjectives 530

7.10 Adjectives in combination 536

7.11 Overview of adverbs 538

7.12 The form of adverbs 539

7.13 Syntactic roles of adverbs 544

7.14 Semantic categories of adverbs 552

7.15 Discourse choices for degree adverbs as modifiers 564

SECTION D More complex structures 571

8 Complex noun phrases 573

8.1 Overview 574

8.2 Structural types of premodification 588

8.3 Meaning relations expressed by noun + noun sequences 589

8.4 Noun phrases with multiple premodifiers 596

8.5 Restrictive v. non-restrictive postmodifiers 602

8.6 Major structural types of postmodification 604

8.7 Postmodification by finite relative clause 608

8.8 Postmodification by non-finite clause 630

8.9 Postmodification by prepositional phrase 634

8.10 Postmodification by appositive noun phrase 638

8.11 Noun phrases with multiple postmodifiers 640

8.12 Noun complement clauses v. nominal postmodifiers 644

8.13 Structural types of noun complement clause 645

8.14 Head nouns taking noun complement clauses 648

9 The form and function of complement clauses 657

9.1 Overview 658

9.2 That-clauses 660

9.3 Wh-clauses 683

9.4 Infinitive clauses 693

9.5 Ing-clauses 739

9.6 Ellipsis and pro-form substitution in post-predicate complement clauses 751

9.7 Choice of complement clause type 753

10 Adverbials 761

10.1 Overview 762

10.2 Circumstance adverbials 776

10.3 Stance adverbials 853

10.4 Linking adverbials 875

SECTION Grammar in a wider perspective 893

11 Word order and related syntactic choices 895

11.1 Overview 896

11.2 Word order 898

11.3 The passive 935

11.4 Existential there 943

11.5 Dislocation 956

11.6 Clefting 958

11.7 Syntactic choices in conversation v. academic prose 963

12 The grammatical marking of stance 965

12.1 Overview 966

12.2 Major grammatical devices used to express stance 969

12.3 Major semantic distinctions conveyed by stance markers 972

12.4 Attribution of stance to the speaker or writer 976

12.5 Register differences in the marking of stance 978

13 Lexical expressions in speech and writing 987

13.1 Overview 988

13.2 Lexical bundles 990

13.3 Idiomatic phrases 1024

13.4 Free combinations of verb + particle 1029

13.5 Coordinated binomial phrases 1030

14 The grammar of conversation 1037

14.1 Introduction 1038

14.2 Performance phenomena: dysfluency and error 1052

14.3 The constructional principles of spoken grammar 1066

14.4 Selected topics in conversational grammar 1108

Appendix 1128

Endnotes 1133

Bibliography 1139

Lexical index 1148

Conceptual index 1174

文库索引 1205

SECTION A Introductory 1

1 Introduction: A corpus-based approach to English grammar 3

1.1 Introduction 4

1.1.1 Major goals of the LGSWE 5

1.2 Structure and use in English grammar 6

1.2.1 Register distribution 8

1.2.2 Lexico-grammatical patterns 13

1.2.3 Grammatical/discourse factors 14

1.3 Varieties of English 15

1.3.1 Registers of English 15

1.3.2 Dialect distinctions 17

1.3.3 Standard and non-standard English 18

1.3.3.1 Variation within standard English 18

1.3.3.2 Variation within non-standard English 20

1.3.4 The relative importance of register and dialect differences 20

1.4 Representation of varieties in the LSWE Corpus 24

1.4.1 Register distinctions in the LSWE Corpus 24

1.4.2 Dialect distinctions in the LSWE Corpus 26

1.4.3 Size of the LSWE Corpus 26

1.4.4 Representativeness and accuracy of the LSWE Corpus 27

1.5 Description of the register categories in the LSWE Corpus 29

1.5.1 Conversation 29

1.5.2 Fiction 29

1.5.3 News 31

1.5.4 Academic prose 32

1.5.5 Supplementary registers 33

1.6 Grammatical analysis of the LSWE Corpus 35

1.7 Quantitative findings in the grammar 38

1.8 Functional interpretation of quantitative findings 41

1.8.1 Function as the performance of task s 41

1.8.2 Function as a reflection of processing constraints 43

1.8.3 Function as social or situational indexing 43

1.8.4 Other explanatory considerations 44

1.9 Overview of the grammar 44

1.10 Potential users and uses of the LGSWE 45

SECTION B Basic grammar: description and distribution 47

2 Word and phrase grammar 49

2.1 The nature of grammatical units 50

2.2 Words and their characteristics 51

2.2.1 Word types and word tokens 51

2.2.1. 1 Use of words in text examples 51

2.2.1.2 TTR across the registers 53

2.2.2 Orthographic words, grammatical words, and lexemes 54

2.2.3 The three major word classes 55

2.2.3.1 Lexical words 55

2.2.3.2 Function words 55

2.2.3.3 Inserts 56

2.2.4 Closed systems v.open classes 56

2.2.5 The structure of words: morphology 57

2.2.5.1 Inflection 57

2.2.5.2 Derivation 57

2.2.5.3 Compounding 58

2.2.5.4 Multi-word lexical units 58

2.2.6 Core v. peripheral members of word classes 59

2.2.7 Multiple class membership 60

2.2.8 Use of lexical words, function words,and inserts 61

2.2.9 Lexical density 62

2.3 Survey of lexical words 62

2.3.1 Nouns 62

2.3.2 Lexical verbs 63

2.3.3 Adjectives 64

2.3.4 Adverbs 64

2.3.5 Lexical word classes 65

2.3.6 Borderline cases of lexical word class membership 66

2.4 Survey of function words 69

2.4.1 Determiners 69

2.4.2 Pronouns 70

2.4.2.1 Overlap of pronoun, determiner, and adverb classes 71

2.4.2.2 Other pro-forms 72

2.4.3 Primary auxiliaries 72

2.4.4 Modal auxiliaries 73

2.4.5 Prepositions 74

2.4.5.1 Free v. bound prepositions 74

2.4.5.2 Complex prepositions 75

2.4.5.3 Overlap between prepositions and other word classes 76

2.4.6 Adverbial particles 78

2.4.6.1 Adverbial particles v. adverbs 78

2.4.6.2 Adverbial particles v.prepositions 78

2.4.7 Coordinators 79

2.4.7.1 Correlative coordinators 80

2.4.7.2 Coordinators v. other word classes 80

2.4.7.3 Simple coordinators:distribution 81

2.4.7.4 Sentence/turn-initial coordinators 83

2.4. 7.5 Correlative coordinators: distribution 85

2.4.8 Subordinators 85

2.4.8.1 Complex subordinators 85

2.4.8.2 Correlative subordinators 86

2.4.8.3 Overlap between 86

subordinators and other word classes 86

2.4.9 Wh-words 87

2.4.10 Existential there 88

2.4.11 The negator not 88

2.4.12 The infinitive marker to 89

2.4.13 Numerals 89

2.4.13.1 Cardinals 89

2.4.13.2 Ordinals 90

2.4.13.3 Numerals: distribution 90

2.4.14 Major function word classes:distribution 91

2.5 Survey of inserts 93

2.6 Phrases and their characteristics 94

2.6.1 Constituency 94

2.6.2 Form v. syntactic role of phrases 95

2.6.3 Phrases in text samples 95

2.7 Types of phrase 96

2.7.1 Noun phrases 97

2.7.1.1 The syntactic roles of noun phrases 98

2.7.1.2 Discontinuous noun phrases 99

2.7.2 Verb phrases 99

2.7.2.1 The syntactic role of verb phrases 100

2.7.2.2 Discontinuous verb phrases 100

2.7.2.3 Auxiliary-only verb phrases 101

2.7.3 Adjective phrases 101

2.7.3.1 The syntactic roles of adjective phrases 101

2.7.3.2 Discontinuous adjective phrases 102

2.7.4 Adverb phrases 102

2.7.4.1 The syntactic roles of adverb phrases 102

2.7.5 Prepositional phrases 103

2.7.5.1 Extended prepositional phrases 104

2.7.5.2 The syntactic roles of prepositional phrases 104

2.7.5.3 Stranded prepositions 105

2.7.5.4 Stranded prepositions in independent wh-questions 105

2.7.6 Genitive phrases 108

2.7.7 Numeral phrases 109

2.7.7.1 Complex numbers 109

2.7.7.2 Types of numerical expressions 109

2.7.7.3 Approximate numbers 111

2.7.7.4 Approximating numeral expressions 112

2.8 Embedding of phrases 113

2.9 Coordination of phrases 113

2.9.1 Phrasal v. clausal coordination 115

2.9.2 Coordination tags 115

2.9.2.1 Distribution of coordination tags 116

2.10 Simple v. complex phrases 117

3 Clause grammar 119

3.1 Clause v. non-clausal material 120

3.1.1 Use of clauses v. non-clausal material in text samples 120

3.2 Major clause elements 122

3.2.1 Subject (S) 123

3.2.1.1 Semantic roles of subjects 123

3.2.1.2 Dummy subjects 125

3.2.1.3 Subjects in non-finite clauses 125

3.2.2 Verb phrase (V) 125

3.2.3 Subject predicative (Ps) 126

3.2.4 Direct object (Od) 126

3.2.4.1 Semantic roles of direct objects 127

3.2.4.2 Dummy objects 128

3.2.5 Indirect object (Oi) 128

3.2.6 Prepositional object (Op) 129

3.2.7 Object predicative (Po) 130

3.2.8 Adverbials (A) 130

3.2.8.1 Circumstance adverbials (Ac) 131

3.2.8.2 Stance adverbials (As) 131

3.2.8.3 Linking adverbials (Ai) 133

3.2.9 The operator 133

3.3 Clause links 134

3.4 Peripheral elements 136

3.4.1 Detached predicatives and related forms 136

3.4.2 Parentheticals 137

3.4.3 Prefaces 138

3.4.4 Tags 139

3.4.5 Discourse markers 140

3.4.6 Vocatives 140

3.5 Major clause pattems 141

3.5.1 Subject—verb phrase 141

3.5.2 Subject—verb phrase—obligatory adverbial 143

3.5.3 Subject—verb phrase—subject predicative 145

3.5.3.1 The characterizing pattern 145

3.5.3.2 The identifying pattern 146

3.5.4 Subject—verb phrase—direct object 147

3.5.5 Subject—verb phrase—prepositional object 149

3.5.6 Subject—verb phrase—indirect object-direct object 150

3.5.7 Subject—verb phrase—direct object—prepositional object 150

3.5.8 Subject—verb phrase—direct object—object predicative 151

3.5.9 Subject—verb phrase—direct object—obligatory adverbial 151

3.5.10 More complex patterns 152

3.6 Variations on clause patterns 152

3.6.1 Order variations 152

3.6.1.1 Inversion 152

3.6.1.2 Fronting 153

3.6.1.3 Postponement 153

3.6.2 The passive 154

3.6.3 Existential there 154

3.6.4 Extraposition 155

3.6.5 Clefting 155

3.6.6 Condensation 155

3.7 Ellipsis 156

3.7.1 Ellipsis in coordinated clauses 156

3.7.2 Ellipsis in comparative clauses 156

3.7.3 Ellipsis in question-answer sequences 157

3.7.4 Other types of textual ellipsis 157

3.7.5 Omission of function words and situational ellipsis 157

3.8 Negation 158

3.8.1 Overall frequency of negation 159

3.8.2 Not-negation 160

3.8.2.1 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with transitive have (got) 160

3.8.2.2 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with the semi-modal have to 162

3.8.2.3 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with dare and need 163

3.8.2.4 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with ought to and used to 164

3.8.2.5 Full form v. operator contraction v. not-contraction 165

3.8.2.6 Aren't I and ain't 167

3.8.3 No-negation 168

3.8.4 Occurrence of not-negation v. no-negation 169

3.8.4.1 Variability of not-negation and no-negation 169

3.8.4.2 Relative frequency of not-negation v. no-negation 170

3.8.4.3 Choice of no-negation v.not-negation 171

3.8.4.4 Not-negation collocations 173

3.8.5 The scope of negation 175

3.8.6 Assertive and non-assertive forms 176

3.8.7 Multiple negation 177

3.8.7.1 Dependent multiple negation 178

3.8.7.2 Independent multiple negation 179

3.9 Subject-verb concord 180

3.9.1 Complications with concord patterns 180

3.9.1.1 Concord with plural forms not ending in -s 181

3.9.1.2 Concord with singular forms ending in -s 181

3.9.1.3 Concord with coordinated subjects 182

3.9.1.4 Concord with indefinite pronouns and quantifying expressions 184

3.9.1.5 Concord with existential there 185

3.9.1.6 Concord with clausal subjects 187

3.9.2 Notional concord 187

3.9.2.1 Concord with names, titles,and quotations 187

3.9.2.2 Concord with measure expressions 187

3.9.2.3 Concord with collective nouns 188

3.9.3 Concord and proximity 189

3.9.4 Non-standard concord in conversation 190

3.9.5 Subject-verb concord and pronominal reference 192

3.10 Types of dependent clauses 192

3.11 Finite dependent clauses 193

3.11.1 Nominal clauses 193

3.11.2 Adverbial clauses 194

3.11.3 Relative clauses 195

3.11.4 Comparative clauses and other degree clauses 195

3.11.5 Reporting clauses 196

3.11.6 Comment clauses 197

3.11.7 Other peripheral clauses 197

3.12 Non-finite clauses 198

3.12.1 Infinitive clauses 198

3.12.2 Ing-clauses 199

3.12.3 Ed-clauses 200

3.12.4 Supplementive clauses 201

3.12.5 Verbless clauses 201

3.13 Major types of independent clauses 202

3.13.1 Declarative clauses 203

3.13.2 Interrogative clauses 203

3.13.2.1 Wh-questions 204

3.13.2.2 Yes/no-questions 206

3.13.2.3 Alternative questions 207

3.13.2.4 Question tags 208

3.13.2.5 Interrogatives in general:distribution 211

3.13.2.6 Question types: distribution 211

3.13.2.7 Choice between interrogative who and whom 214

3.13.2.8 Auxiliary do in independent interrogative clauses 215

3.13.3 Exclamative clauses 219

3.13.4 Imperative clauses 219

3.13.4.1 The realization of imperative clauses 219

3.13.4.2 Imperative clauses:distribution 221

3.14 Unembedded dependent clauses 223

3.15 Non-clausal material 224

3.15.1 Non-clausal material in writing 224

3.15.2 Non-clausal material in conversation 225

SECTION C Key word classes and their phrases 227

4 Nouns, pronouns, and the simple noun phrase 229

4.1 Overview of nominals in discourse 230

4.1.1 Use of nominals in discourse 230

4.1.1.1 Density and types of nominal elements 230

4.1.1.2 The role of nominal elements in discourse 231

4.1.1.3 Establishing reference 232

4.1.1.4 Chains of reference 234

4.1.2 Pronouns v. full noun phrases 235

4.1.3 The forms of anaphoric expressions 237

4.1.4 Forms of anaphoric expression in relation to distance 239

4.2 The basic structure of noun-headed phrases 240

4.3 Types of nouns 241

4.3.1 Use of countable nouns in Text samples 242

4.3.2 Use of uncountable nouns in Text samples 243

4.3.2.1 Countable and uncountable uses of nouns 243

4.3.2.2 Plural uncountables 244

4.3.3 Proper nouns 245

4.3.3.1 Initial capitals 245

4.3.3.2 Proper nouns regularly occurring with the definite article 246

4.3.3.3 Proper nouns functioning as common nouns 247

4.3.4 Collective nouns 247

4.3.4.1 Collocations of quantifying collectives 248

4.3.5 Unit nouns 250

4.3.5.1 Collocations of unit nouns 250

4.3.6 Quantifying nouns 252

4.3.6.1 Collocations of types of quantifying nouns 252

4.3.6.2 Pair v. couple 254

4.3.7 Species nouns 255

4.3.7.1 Species nouns: distribution 256

4.3.8 Noun v. determiner 257

4.4 Determiners 258

4.4.1 The articles 260

4.4.1.1 The indefinite article 260

4.4.1.2 The zero article 261

4.4.1.3 The definite article 263

4.4.1.4 Generic reference 265

4.4.1.5 Reference patterns of definite noun phrases 266

4.4.1.6 Definite and indefinite articles: distribution 267

4.4.1.7 Definite and indefinite articles in relation to syntactic role 268

4.4.1.8 Definite determiners:distribution 269

4.4.2 Possessive determiners 270

4.4.2.1 Possessive determiners:distribution 271

4.4.3 Demonstrative determiners 272

4.4.3.1 Demonstrative determiners:distribution 274

4.4.4 Quantifiers 275

4.4.4.1 Quantifiers: distribution 277

4.4.5 Numerals 278

4.4.5.1 Numerals across the registers 279

4.4.6 Semi-determiners 280

4.4.6.1 Other uses of the semi-determiners 281

4.4.6.2 Semi-determiners:distribution 282

4.4.7 Wh-determiners 284

4.4.8 Determiner v. pronoun 284

4.5 Number 284

4.5.1 Regular plurals 285

4.5.1.1 Plurals of words ending in -o 285

4.5.2 Irregular plurals 286

4.5.3 Latin and Greek plurals 286

4.5.4 Zero plurals 288

4.5.5 Plural-only nouns and nouns in -s 289

4.5.6 Singular v. plural nouns: distribution 291

4.6 Case 292

4.6.1 The form of the genitive 292

4.6.1.1 Genitive v. common case 293

4.6.2 The frequency of genitive case forms 293

4.6.3 Specifying genitives 294

4.6.4 Classifying genitives 294

4.6.4.1 Classifying genitives: use 295

4.6.5 Genitives of time 295

4.6.6 Genitives of measure 296

4.6.7 Elliptic genitives 296

4.6.8 Other independent genitives 297

4.6.8.1 Independent genitives unsupported by the linguistic context 297

4.6.9 Group genitives 298

4.6.10 The double genitive 299

4.6.11 Density of genitives 299

4.6.12 Choice between s-genitives and of-phrases 300

4.6.12.1 S-genitives and of-phrases overall 301

4.6.12.2 S-genitives and of-phrases and the dependent noun 302

4.6.12.3 Meanings of s-genitives and of-phrases 303

4.6.12.4 S-genitives and of-phrases and length 304

4.6.12.5 S-genitives and of-phrases and information status 305

4.6.12.6 S-genitives and of-phrases in collocations 306

4.6.12.7 Summary of choice between s-genitives and of-phrases 306

4.6.13 Choice between elliptic genitives and of-constructions 307

4.6.13.1 Elliptic genitives v.of-constructions: distribution 307

4.6.14 Choice between the double genitive and related constructions 308

4.6.14.1 The double genitive v.corresponding constructions with possessive pronouns 308

4.6.14.2 The double genitive v.ordinary of-phrases 310

4.6.14.3 The double genitive v.partitive constructions 311

4.7 Gender 311

4.7.1 Lexical expression of gender 312

4.7.1.1 Words for masculine/feminine gender 312

4.7.1.2 Lexical means of expressing dual gender reference 315

4.7.2 Gender-specific v. dual gender pronoun reference 316

4.7.2.1 Grammatical means for dual gender reference 317

4.7.3 Personal v. non-personal reference with pronouns 317

4.8 Noun formation 318

4.8.1 Derived nouns 319

4.8.1.1 Derivational prefixes used to form new nouns 320

4.8.1.2 Some common derivational suffix patterns 320

4.8.1.3 Frequency of common noun derivational suffixes 322

4.8.1.4 Productivity of common noun derivations 323

4.8.2 Formation of nouns through compounding 325

4.8.2.1 Noun compounds in conversation and news in AmE 326

4.9 The role of pronouns in discourse 327

4.10 Personal pronouns 328

4.10.1 Specific reference 328

4.10.1.1 Problems in the use of first person plural pronouns 329

4.10.1.2 Problems in the use of second person pronouns 330

4.10.1.3 Problems in the use of third person pronouns 331

4.10.2 Referring to people in general 331

4.10.3 Special problems with collective nouns 331

4.10.4 Special uses of it 332

4.10.5 Personal pronouns: distribution 333

4.10.6 Nominative v. accusative forms of personal pronouns 335

4.10.6.1 Pronoun choice after forms of be 335

4.10.6.2 Pronoun choice after as and than 336

4.10.6.3 Pronoun choice in coordinated noun phrases 337

4.10.6.4 Pronoun choice in peripheral and non-integrated noun phrases 339

4.10.6.5 Summary of factors affecting pronoun case choice 340

4.11 Possessive pronouns 340

4.11.1 The type a friend of mine 341

4.11.2 Possessive pronouns: distribution 341

4.12 Reflexive pronouns 342

4.12.1 Reflexive pronouns: distribution 344

4.12.2 Emphatic reflexive pronouns 345

4.13 Reciprocal pronouns 346

4.13.1 Reciprocal pronouns: distribution 346

4.14 Demonstrative pronouns 347

4.14.1 Demonstrative pronouns: 349

distribution 349

4.14.2 This/these in academic prose 349

4.14.3 Thbse with postmodifying phrases or clauses 350

4.14.4 The demonstrative pronoun that in conversation 350

4.14.5 That in general 350

4.15 Indefinite pronouns 351

4.15.1 Indefinite pronouns: distribution 353

4.15.2 The pronoun one 353

4.15.2.1 The pronoun one: distribution 354

4.16 Other pronouns 355

5 Verbs 357

5.1 Major verb functions and classes 358

5.1.1 Frequency of lexical, modal, and primary auxiliary verbs 358

5.1.2 Distribution of lexical verbs and copula be across registers 359

5.2 Single-word lexical verbs 360

5.2.1 Classification of verbs into semantic domains 360

5.2.1.1 Major semantic domains of single-word verbs 361

5.2.1.2 Distribution of semantic domains 365

5.2.1.3 Semantic domains of verbs 365

5.2.2 Most common lexical verbs 373

5.2.2.1 Overall use of the most common lexical verbs 373

5.2.2.2 Most common verbs in each register 374

5.2.3 Verbs with animate and inanimate subjects 378

5.2.4 Valency patterns for single-word lexical verbs 380

5.2.4.1 Valencies of common verbs across semantic domains 382

5.2.4.2 Variation in verb valency patterns 384

5.2.4.3 Intransitive and monotransitive patterns 384

5.2.4.4 Intransitive, monotransitive, and complex transitive patterns 386

5.2.4.5 Intransitive, monotransitive,and ditransitive patterns 388

5.2.4.6 Monotransitive and ditransitive but not intransitive patterns 389

5.2.4.7 Verbs taking almost all patterns 390

5.2.4.8 General patterns 392

5.2.5 Regular lexical verb inflections 392

5.2.5.1 Consonant doubling of regularly inflected verbs 393

5.2.5.2 Doubling of base-final /followed by -ed across dialects 394

5.2.6 Irregular lexical verb inflections 394

5.2.6.1 Classes of irregular verbs 394

5.2.6.2 Regular and irregular forms 396

5.2.6.3 Got and gotten 398

5.2.7 Verb derivation 399

5.2.7.1 Most frequent verb derivational affixes 400

5.2.7.2 Productivity of verb derivational affixes 400

5.3 Multi-word lexical verbs 403

5.3.1 Features distinguishing multi-word verb combinations 404

5.3.1.1 Multi-word combinations functioning as different structural categories 405

5.3.2 Phrasal verbs 407

5.3.2.1 Semantic domains of phrasal verbs 408

5.3.2.2 Register distribution of phrasal verbs 408

5.3.2.3 The most common phrasal verbs 409

5.3.2.4 Productivity of particular verbs and adverbial particles 412

5.3.3 Prepositional verbs 413

5.3.3.1 Semantic domains of prepositional verbs 414

5.3.3.2 Register distribution of prepositional verbs 415

5.3.3.3 The most common prepositional verbs 416

5.3.3.4 Productivity of particular verbs and prepositions 422

5.3.4 Phrasal-prepositional verbs 423

5.3.4.1 Register distribution of phrasal-prepositional verbs 424

5.3.4.2 The most common phrasal-prepositional verbs 425

5.3.5 Other multi-word verb constructions 427

5.4 Main and auxiliary functions of primary verbs 428

5.4.1 Be 428

5.4.2 Have 429

5.4.3 Do 430

5.4.3.1 Main verb do in idiomatic expressions 430

5.4.3.2 Do as pro-verb 430

5.4.3.3 Register distribution of main verb and pro-verb do 432

5.4.3.4 Auxiliary do in emphatic function 433

5.4.3.5 Lexical associations of emphatic do 433

5.4.3.6 Auxiliary do-support in negatives and interrogatives 435

5.5 Copular verbs 435

5.5.1 Verbs functioning as copulas 436

5.5.2 Complements of copular verbs 436

5.5.3 Register distribution of copular verbs and common predicative adjectives 437

5.5.3.1 Current (non-sensory)copular verbs 439

5.5.3.2 Sensory copular verbs 442

5.5.3.3 Resulting copular verbs 443

5.5.4 Valency patterns of the copulas be,seem, and appear 446

5.5.4.1 Complement types with be,seem, and appear 446

5.5.4.2 Subject and complement types with be 448

6 Variation in the verb phrase: tense, aspect,voice, and modality 451

6.1 Structure and meaning distinctions in the verb phrase 452

6.2 Tense 453

6.2.1 Basic tense and time distinctions 453

6.2.1.1 Simple present tense marking past or future time 454

6.2.1.2 Past tense in reported speech 455

6.2.1.3 The marking of future time 456

6.2.2 Register distribution of tense and modality 456

6.2.3 Lexical associations of present and past tense 459

6.3 Aspect 460

6.3.1 Perfect and progressive aspect across registers and dialects 461

6.3. 1. 1 Register distribution of perfect and progressive aspect 461

6.3.1.2 Perfect and progressive aspect across dialects 462

6.3.2 Perfect aspect 463

6.3.2.1 Lexical associations of present perfect aspect 463

6.3.2.2 Present perfect forms of get and have across dialects 466

6.3.2.3 Present perfect aspect v.simple past tense 467

6.3.2.4 Lexical associations of past perfect aspect 468

6.3.2.5 Past perfect aspect v. simple past tense 469

6.3.3 Progressive aspect 470

6.3.3.1 Lexical associations of progressive aspect 471

6.4 Active and passive voice 475

6.4.1 Register distribution of active and passive voice 476

6.4.2 Lexical associations of the passive 477

6.4.2.1 Verbs that commonly occur in the passive 477

6.4.2.2 Verbs common with the get passive 481

6.4.2.3 Verbs uncommon in the passive 481

6.5 Complex combinations of aspect and voice 482

6.6 Modals and semi-modals 483

6.6.1 Distribution of modals and semi-modals 486

6.6.2 Individual modals/semi-modals across registers and dialects 487

6.6.3 Lexical associations of modality 490

6.6.4 Extrinsic v. intrinsic uses of individual modals 491

6.6.4.1 The permission/possibility/ ability modals 491

6.6.4.2 The obligation/necessity modals and semi-modals 493

6.6.4.3 The volition/prediction modals and semi-modals 495

6.7 Combinations of modal verbs with marked aspect or voice 497

6.8 Sequences of modals and semi-modals 501

7 Adjectives and adverbs 503

7.1 Overview 504

7.1.1 Use of adjectives and adverbs 504

7.2 Defining characteristics of adjectives 505

7.2.1 Attributive and predicative adjectives across registers 506

7.2.2 Central and peripheral adjectives 507

7.2.3 Adjectives strongly associated with attributive or predicative position 508

7.3 Semantic grouping of adjectives 508

7.4 Attributive adjectives 510

7.4.1 Semantic domains of attributive adjectives 510

7.4.2 Most common attributive adjectives 511

7.5 Predicative adjectives 515

7.5.1 Most common predicative adjectives 516

7.6 Adjectives in other syntactic roles 518

7.6.1 Postposed adjectives 519

7.6.2 Adjectives as noun phrase heads 519

7.6.3 Adjectives with a clause linking function 520

7.6.4 Adjectives as exclamations 520

7.6.5 Adjectives as detached predicatives 520

7.7 Comparative and superlative degree 521

7.7.1 Gradable adjectives with -er and -est 522

7.7.2 Inflectional v. phrasal comparison 522

7.7.3 Inflectional comparison across registers 523

7.7.4 Phrasal comparison with more and most 524

7.7.5 Doubly marked comparatives and superlatives 525

7.7.6 Adjectives with superlative or absolute meanings 525

7.8 Comparative clauses and other degree complements 526

7.8.1 Comparative constructions across registers 528

7.9 Formation of adjectives 530

7.9.1 Participial adjectives 530

7.9.1.1 Common participial adjectives 530

7.9.2 Derived adjectives 530

7.9.2.1 Common adjectives with derivational suffixes 531

7.9.3 Adjectival compounds 533

7.9.3.1 Distribution of adjectival compounds 535

7.10 Adjectives in combination 536

7.10.1 Repeated comparative adjectives 536

7.10.2 The intensifiers good and and nice and 537

7.11 Overview of adverbs 538

7.12 The form of adverbs 539

7.12.1 Formation of adverbs 539

7.12.1.1 Adverb forms 540

7.12.2 Adverbs and adjectives with the same form 542

7.12.2.1 Good and real as adverbs 542

7.12.3 Comparative and superlative forms 544

7.13 Syntactic roles of adverbs 544

7.13.1 Adverbs modifying adjectives 544

7.13.1.1 Adverbs modifying adjectives in conversation and academic prose 545

7.13.2 Adverbs modifying other adverbs 546

7.13.2.1 Adverbs modifying adverbs in conversation and academic prose 546

7.13.3 Adverbs modifying other elements 548

7.13.4 Adverbs as complements of prepositions 548

7.13.5 Adverbs as clause elements: adverbials 549

7.13.6 Adverbs with degree complements 549

7.13.7 Adverbs standing alone 551

7.14 Semantic categories of adverbs 552

7.14.1 Importance of context in the semantics of adverbs 552

7.14.2 Description of semantic categories 552

7.14.2.1 Place 552

7.14.2.2 Time 552

7.14.2.3 Manner 553

7.14.2.4 Degree 554

7.14.2.5 Additive/restrictive 556

7.14.2.6 Stance 557

7.14.2.7 Linking 558

7.14.2.8 Other meanings 560

7.14.3 Semantic domains of adverbs in conversation and academic prose 560

7.15 Discourse choices for degree adverbs as modifiers 564

7.15.1 Amplifiers in conversation and academic prose 564

7.15.2 Degree modifiers other than amplifiers in conversation and academic prose 566

SECTION D More complex structures 571

8 Complex noun phrases 573

8.1 Overview 574

8.1.1 Register distribution of noun phrases with pre- and postmodifiers 578

8.1.2 Co-occurrence of modifiers with head noun types 579

8.1.3 Discourse distribution of noun phrase types in academic prose 585

8.2 Structural types of premodification 588

8.2.1 Structural types of premodification across registers 589

8.3 Meaning relations expressed by noun + noun sequences 589

8.3.1 Noun + noun sequences across registers 592

8.3.2 Plural nouns as premodiflers 594

8.4 Noun phrases with multiple premodifiers 596

8.4.1 Length of sequences of premodifiers 597

8.4.2 Order of multiple premodifiers 598

8.4.3 Coordinated premodifiers 600

8.5 Restrictive v. non-restrictive postmodifiers 602

8.5.1 Distribution of restrictive v. non- restrictive relative clauses 603

8.6 Major structural types of postmodification 604

8.6.1 Postmodifier types across registers 606

8.7 Postmodification by finite relative clause 608

8.7.1 The discourse choice among relativizers 608

8.7.1.1 Variant relativizers in non-standard dialects 609

8.7.1.2 Distribution of relativizers across registers 609

8.7.1.3 Who v. which, that, and zero 612

8.7.1.4 Who v. whom, that, and zero 614

8.7.1.5 Which v. that 615

8.7.1.6 Discourse choice between whose and of which 617

8.7.1.7 Whose v. of which across registers 618

8.7.1.8 Discourse choice of the zero relativizer 619

8.7.2 Grammatical role of the relative clause gap 621

8.7.2.1 Relative clause gaps in conversation 622

8.7.3 Subject v. non-subject head nouns 623

8.7.4 Relative clauses with adverbial gaps 624

8.7.4.1 Relative adverbs across registers 624

8.7.4.2 Head nouns taking relative clauses with adverbial gaps 626

8.8 Postmodification by non-finite clause 630

8.8.1 Participle clauses as postmodifiers 630

8.8.1.1 Passive and -ing forms of verbs in postmodifying participle clauses v. relative clauses 631

8.8.2 To-clauses as postmodifiers 632

8.8.2.1 Structural types of postmodifying to-clause 633

8.9 Postmodification by prepositional phrase 634

8.9.1 Common prepositions in postmodifying prepositional phrases 635

8.9.2 Choice of prepositional phrase v.relative clause 637

8.10 Postmodification by appositive noun phrase 638

8.10.1 Appositive noun phrases in news and academic prose 639

8.11 Noun phrases with multiple postmodifiers 640

8.11.1 Order of constituents in postmodifier complexes 641

8.12 Noun complement clauses v.nominal postmodifiers 644

8.13 Structural types of noun complement clause 645

8.13.1 Noun complement clause types across registers 647

8.14 Head nouns taking noun complement clauses 648

8.14.1 Head nouns taking that-clauses 648

8.14.1.1 Head nouns that take both that-complement clauses and relative clauses 650

8.14.2 Head nouns taking to-clauses 652

8.14.3 Head nouns taking of + ing-clauses 653

8.14.4 Head nouns taking wh-interrogative clauses 656

9 The form and function of complement clauses 657

9.1 Overview 658

9.1.1 Complementation by clauses 658

9.1.2 Structural types of complement clause 658

9.1.3 Grammatical positions of complement clauses 659

9.2 That-clauses 660

9.2.1 Discourse functions of that-clauses 660

9.2.2 Post-predicate that-clauses controlled by verbs 661

9.2.2.1 Structural patterns 661

9.2.2.2 Controlling verbs, by semantic domain 662

9.2.2.3 Common controlling verbs across registers 667

9.2.3 Verbs taking extraposed that-clauses 670

9.2.4 Subject noun phrases with subject predicative that-clauses 671

9.2.5 That-clauses controlled by adjectival predicates 671

9.2.5.1 Adjectival predicates taking post-predicate that-clauses 672

9.2.5.2 Adjectival predicates taking extraposed that-clauses 672

9.2.6 Register distribution of that-clause types 674

9.2.7 Pre-predicate v. extraposed that-clauses 676

9.2.7.1 Register factors 676

9.2.7.2 Information structure 677

9.2.7.3 Grammatical factors 678

9.2.7.4 Topic and style 679

9.2.8 Retention v. omission of the that complementizer 680

9.2.8.1 Register factors 680

9.2.8.2 Discourse factors favoring that omission 681

9.2.8.3 Discourse factors favoring that retention 682

9.3 Wh-clauses 683

9.3.1 Structural types of wh-clauses 683

9.3.2 Post-predicate wh-clauses controlled by verbs 684

9.3.2.1 Grammatical patterns 685

9.3.2.2 Controlling verbs, by semantic domain 685

9.3.2.3 Common controlling verbs across registers 688

9.3.2.4 Post-predicate wh-clauses introduced by whether and if 690

9.3.2.5 Common verbs controlling whether- and if-clauses 691

9.4 Infinitive clauses 693

9.4.1 Overview 693

9.4.2 Post-predicate infinitive clauses controlled by verbs 693

9.4.2.1 Grammatical patterns 694

9.4.2.2 Pattern 1: verb + to-clause 694

9.4.2.3 Pattern 2: verb + NP + to-clause 695

9.4.2.4 Pattern 2P: NP2 + passive verb + to-clause 697

9.4.2.5 Pattern 3: verb + for NP +to-clause 698

9.4.2.6 Register distribution of verb patterns 698

9.4.2.7 Controlling verbs, by semantic domain 699

9.4.2.8 Interaction between the semantic and grammatical characteristics of controlling verbs 709

9.4.2.9 Common controlling verbs across registers 710

9.4.3 Verbs taking extraposed to-clauses 714

9.4.4 Subject noun phrases and subject predicative to-clauses 714

9.4.5 To-clauses controlled by adjectives 716

9.4.5.1 Grammatical patterns 716

9.4.5.2 Adjectives taking post-predicate to-clauses 718

9.4.5.3 Adjectival predicates taking extraposed to-clauses 720

9.4.6 Grammatical distribution of to-clauses 722

9.4.7 Pre-predicate v. extraposed to-clauses 724

9.4.7.1 Register factors 724

9.4.7.2 Information structure 725

9.4.7.3 Grammatical complexity 726

9.4.7.4 Stylistic preference 727

9.4.8 Object-to-subject raising v.extraposed to-clauses with adjectives 728

9.4.8.1 Register factors 728

9.4.8.2 Grammatical complexity and information packaging 729

9.4.8.3 Stylistic preference 730

9.4.9 Subject-to-subject raising v.extraposed that-clauses 731

9.4.9.1 Information packaging 731

9.4.9.2 Register factors 732

9.4.9.3 Clauses with seem and appear 733

9.4.9.4 Clauses with likely and unlikely 734

9.4.10 To-clause v. bare infinitive clause with dare and help 735

9.4.10.1 Dialect factors 735

9.4.10.2 Register factors 736

9.4.10.3 The pattern to help +infinitive 737

9.4.11 Try+to + verb v. try + and + verb 738

9.4.11.1 Distributional factors 738

9.5 Ing-clauses 739

9.5.1 Overview 739

9.5.2 Post-predicate ing-clauses controlled by verbs 740

9.5.2.1 Grammatical patterns 740

9.5.2.2 Controlling verbs, by semantic domain 741

9.5.2.3 Common controlling verbs across registers 746

9.5.3 Adjectival predicates controlling ing-clauses 749

9.5.4 Post-predicate ing-clauses across registers 749

9.5.5 Objective v. possessive NP with ing-clauses 750

9.5.5.1 Register distribution 750

9.6 Ellipsis and pro-form substitution in post-predicate complement clauses 751

9.6.1 Verbs occurring commonly with ellipsis and pro-form substitution 751

9.7 Choice of complement clause type 753

9.7.1 Register distribution, structural factors, and semantic factors 754

9.7.2 Lexico-grammatical factors 755

9.7.3 That-clauses v. non-finite clauses 756

9.7.4 Infinitive v. ing-clause 757

10 Adverbials 761

10.1 Overview 762

10.1.1 The three classes of adverbial 763

10.1.1.1 Frequency of the three classes of adverbial 765

10.1.2 Syntactic realizations of adverbials 767

10.1.2. 1 Syntactic realizations of the three adverbial classes 768

10.1.3 Positions of adverbials in the clause 770

10.1.3.1 Frequencies of positions of adverbials 772

10.1.4 Adverbial variation in relation to other elements 774

10.2 Circumstance adverbials 776

10.2.1 Semantic categories of circumstance adverbials 776

10.2.1.1 Place 776

10.2.1.2 Time 777

10.2.1.3 Process 777

10.2.1.4 Contingency 779

10.2.1.5 Extent/degree 780

10.2.1.6 Addition/restriction 780

10.2.1.7 Recipient 781

10.2.1.8 Other semantic relationships 781

10.2.1.9 Overlap and ambiguity 782

10.2.2 Distribution of semantic categories 783

10.2.3 Overview of syntactic realizations of semantic categories 787

10.2.4 Syntactic realizations of circumstance adverbials (excluding clauses) 789

10.2.4.1 Semantic categories within syntactic forms 789

10.2.4.2 Length of prepositional phrases 791

10.2.4.3 Diversity in adverb and prepositional phrase circumstance adverbials 793

10.2.5 Most common circumstance adverbials 795

10.2.6 Position of circumstance adverbials 801

10.2.6.1 Associations between positions and semantic categories 801

10.2.6.2 Relationships between position, grammatical structure, and length 807

10.2.7 Circumstance adverbials in series 810

10.2.7.1 Heterosemantic place, time, and manner series 811

10.2.7.2 Homosemantic place, time,and manner series 814

10.2.7.3 Series of three and more adverbials 817

10.2.8 Clauses as circumstance adverbials 818

10.2.8.1 Semantic categories of circumstance adverbial clauses 818

10.2.8.2 Distribution of clausal semantic categories 820

10.2.8.3 Syntactic forms of circumstance adverbial clauses 825

10.2.8.4 Distribution of clausal syntactic forms 826

10.2.8.5 Dangling participles 829

10.2.8.6 Positions of adverbial clauses 830

10.2.8.7 Subordinators and adverbial clauses 838

10.2.8.8 Subordinators with non-finite adverbial clauses 838

10.2.8.9 Most common subordinators across registers 841

10.2.8.10 Common subordinators with multiple semantic roles 846

10.2.8.11 Though as subordinator v. linking adverbial 850

10.2.8.12 Conditional clauses with if v. subject-operator inversion 851

10.3 Stance adverbials 853

10.3.1 Semantic categories of stance adverbials 854

10.3.1.1 Epistemic stance adverbials 854

10.3.1.2 Attitude adverbials 856

10.3.1.3 Style adverbials 857

10.3.1.4 Ambiguity with other adverbial classes 857

10.3.1.5 Distribution of semantic categories 859

10.3.2 Syntactic realizations of stance adverbials 861

10.3.2.1 Distribution of syntactic forms 862

10.3.2.2 Sentence relatives as stance adverbials 867

10.3.3 Most common stance adverbials across registers 867

10.3.4 Positions of stance adverbials 872

10.3.5 Other discourse functions of stance adverbials 874

10.4 Linking adverbials 875

10.4.1 Semantic categories of linking adverbials 875

10.4.1.1 Enumeration and addition 875

10.4.1.2 Summation 876

10.4.1.3 Apposition 876

10.4.1.4 Result/inference 877

10.4.1.5 Contrast/concession 878

10.4.1.6 Transition 879

10.4.1.7 Overlap of linking adverbials and other adverbial classes 879

10.4.1.8 Distribution of semantic categories 880

10.4.2 Syntactic realizations of linking adverbials 884

10.4.2. 1 Distribution of syntactic forms 884

10.4.3 Most common linking adverbials 886

10.4.3.1 Most common linking adverbials in conversation and academic prose 886

10.4.3.2 Stylistic preferences for linking adverbials 889

10.4.4 Positions of linking adverbials 890

SECTION E Grammar in a wider perspective 893

11 Word order and related syntactic choices 895

11.1 Overview 896

11.1.1 Information flow 896

11.1.2 Focus, emphasis, contrast, and intensification 897

11.1.3 Weight 898

11.2 Word order 898

11.2.1 Grammatical principles of word order 899

11.2.2 Fronting 900

11.2.2.1 Fronted objects and other nominals 900

11.2.2.2 Fronted predicatives 902

11.2.2.3 Fronted infinitive predicates 905

11.2.2.4 Fronted ed- and ing-predicates 906

11.2.2.5 Fronting in dependent clauses 908

11.2.2.6 Fronting in exclamations 909

11.2.2.7 Fronting: distribution 909

11.2.3 Inversion of subject and verb or operator 911

11.2.3.1 Subject-verb inversion 911

11.2.3.2 Subject-operator inversion 915

11.2.3.3 Inversion after the linking forms so, nor, and neither 917

11.2.3.4 Special cases of inversion in independent clauses 918

11.2.3.5 Inversion in dependent clauses 918

11.2.3.6 Inversion in reporting clauses 921

11.2.3.7 Reporting clauses in fiction and news 923

11.2.3.8 Inversion in general: distribution 926

11.2.4 Word-order options at the end of the clause 927

11.2.4.1 The placement of direct and indirect objects 927

11.2.4.2 Pronoun sequences as direct and indirect object 929

11.2.4.3 Clauses with direct objects and object predicatives 930

11.2.4.4 The placement of objects of phrasal verbs 932

11.3 The passive 935

11.3.1 Types of passive construction 935

11.3.2 Passives across syntactic positions and registers 937

11.3.3 The long passive 940

11.3.3.1 Length of subject v. agent phrase in long passives 940

11.3.3.2 Givenness of subject v.agent phrase 941

11.3.4 Comparison of discourse functions of the long and short passive 943

11.4 Existential there 943

11.4.1 The grammatical status of existential there 944

11.4.2 Variation in the verb phrase 944

11.4.2.1 Verb constructions other than simple be 945

11.4.3 The notional subject 946

11.4.4 Adverbial expansions 947

11.4.5 Existential and locative there 948

11.4.6 Simple v. complex existential clauses 949

11.4.7 Discourse functions of existential clauses 951

11.4.8 Existential clause v. locative inversion 954

11.4.8.1 Existential clause v.locative inversion: distribution 954

11.4.9 Existential constructions with there v. have 955

11.5 Dislocation 956

11.5.1 Prefaces 957

11.5.2 Noun phrase tags 957

11.5.3 Prefaces and noun phrase tags: distribution 957

11.6 Clefting 958

11.6.1 It-clefts 959

11.6.2 Wh-clefts 959

11.6.3 Reversed wh-clefts 960

11.6.4 Cleft constructions: distribution 961

11.7 Syntactic choices in conversation v. academic prose 963

12 The grammatical marking of stance 965

12.1 Overview 966

12.1.1 Paralinguistic and non-linguistic devices 967

12.1.2 Lexical marking of stance 968

12.2 Major grammatical devices used to express stance 969

12.2.1 Variability in the structural characteristics of stance devices 971

12.3 Major semantic distinctions conveyed by stance markers 972

12.3.1 Epistemic stance 972

12.3.2 Attitudinal stance 974

12.3.3 Style of speaking stance 975

12.4 Attribution of stance to the speaker or writer 976

12.4.1 Explicit attribution of stance 976

12.4.2 Implicit attribution of stance to the speaker/writer 977

12.4.3 Ambiguous attribution of stance 977

12.5 Register differences in the marking of stance 978

12.5.1 Major stance devices across registers 979

12.5.2 Stance adverbials across registers 981

12.5.3 Stance complement constructions across registers 984

13 Lexical expressions in speech and writing 987

13.1 Overview 988

13.2 Lexical bundles 990

13.2.1 Operational definition of lexical bundles 992

13.2.1.1 Lexical bundles in conversation and academic prose 993

13.2.2 Key to lists of lexical bundles 1000

13.2.3 Lexical bundles in conversation 1001

13.2.3.1 Personal pronoun + lexical verb phrase (+ complement-clause fragment) 1002

13.2.3.2 Pronoun/noun phrase + be + 1005

13.2.3.3 Verb phrase with active verb 1006

13.2.3.4 Yes-no question fragments 1007

13.2.3.5 Wh-question fragments 1008

13.2.3.6 Lexical bundles with wh-clause fragments 1009

13.2.3.7 Lexical bundles with to-clause fragments 1010

13.2.3.8 Verb + that-clause fragments 1010

13.2.3.9 Adverbial clause fragments 1011

13.2.3.10 Noun phrase expressions 1012

13.2.3.11 Prepositional phrase expressions 1012

13.2.3.12 Quantifier expressions 1013

13.2.3.13 Other expressions 1014

13.2.3.14 Meaningless sound bundles 1014

13.2.4 Lexical bundles in academic prose 1014

13.2.4.1 Noun phrase with of- phrase fragment 1015

13.2.4.2 Noun phrase with other post-modifier fragments 1016

13.2.4.3 Prepositional phrase with embedded of-phrase fragment 1017

13.2.4.4 Other prepositional phrase(fragment) 1018

13.2.4.5 Anticipatory it + verb phrase/adjective phrase 1019

13.2.4.6 Passive verb + prepositional phrase fragment 1020

13.2.4.7 Copula be + noun phrase/ adjective phrase 1021

13.2.4.8 (Verb phrase +)that-clause fragment 1021

13.2.4.9 (Verb/adjective +)to-clause fragment 1022

13.2.4.10 Adverbial clause fragment 1023

13.2.4.11 Pronoun/noun phrase +be (+ ...) 1023

13.2.4.12 Other expressions 1024

13.3 Idiomatic phrases 1024

13.3.1 Idiomatic phrases across registers 1025

13.3.2 Verb + noun phrase combinations with have, make, and take 1026

13.4 Free combinations of verb +particle 1029

13.5 Coordinated binomial phrases 1030

13.5.1 Key to lists of binomial phrases 1031

13.5.2 Verb and/or verb 1031

13.5.3 Noun and/or noun 1033

13.5.4 Adjective and/or adjective 1034

13.5.5 Adverb and/or adverb 1036

14 The grammar of conversation 1037

14.1 Introduction 1038

14.1.1 An example of conversation 1040

14.1.2 A functional survey of conversation 1041

14.1.2.1 Conversation takes place in the spoken medium 1041

14.1.2.2 Conversation takes place in shared context 1042

14.1.2.3 Conversation avoids elaboration or specification of meaning 1044

14.1.2.4 Conversation is interactive 1045

14.1.2.5 Conversation is expressive of politeness, emotion, and attitude 1047

14.1.2.6 Conversation takes place in real time 1048

14.1.2.7 Conversation has a restricted and repetitive repertoire 1049

14.1.2.8 Conversation employs a vernacular range of expression 1050

14.1.2.9 Lack of functional explanation 1051

14.2 Performance phenomena:dysfluency and error 1052

14.2.1 Hesitations: silent and filled pauses 1053

14.2.1.1 Frequency of filled and unfilled pauses 1053

14.2.2 Repeats 1055

14.2.2.1 Multiple consecutive repeats 1055

14.2.2.2 Frequency of repeats 1056

14.2.2.3 Repeats of forms with verb contractions 1060

14.2.3 Retrace-and-repair sequences: reformulations 1062

14.2.4 Utterances left grammatically incomplete 1063

14.2.5 Syntactic blends 1064

14.2.5.1 Syntactic blends v.semantic gap-filling clauses 1066

14.3 The constructional principles of spoken grammar 1066

14.3.1 Principles of online production 1066

14.3.1.1 Parenthetical structures 1067

14.3.1.2 The 'add-on' strategy 1068

14.3.1.3 Clausal and non-clausal units (C-units) 1069

14.3.1.4 Distribution of clausal and non-clausal units 1070

14.3.2 Prefaces, bodies, and tags 1072

14.3.2.1 Prefaces and other utterance launchers 1073

14.3.2.2 The ambivalent grammatical status of utterance launchers 1076

14.3.2.3 Extending the body 1078

14.3.2.4 Tags 1080

14.3.3 More on non-clausal units: inserts 1082

14.3.3.1 Interjections 1083

14.3.3.2 Greetings and farewells 1085

14.3.3.3 Discourse markers 1086

14.3.3.4 Attention signals 1088

14.3.3.5 Response elicitors 1089

14.3.3.6 Response forms 1089

14.3.3.7 Hesitators 1092

14.3.3.8 Various polite speech-act formulae 1093

14.3.3.9 Expletives 1094

14.3.3.10 Distribution of inserts 1095

14.3.4 Syntactic non-clausal units 1099

14.3.4.1 Elliptic replies 1099

14.3.4.2 Other types of syntactic non-clausal unit 1100

14.3.4.3 Elliptic phrasal non-clausal units in their context 1104

14.3.5 Ellipsis in clausal units 1104

14.3.5.1 Initial (situational) ellipsis 1104

14.3.5.2 Initial ellipsis 1105

14.3.5.3 Final (post-operator) ellipsis 1106

14.3.5.4 Medial (operator) ellipsis 1107

14.3.5.5 Distribution of initial,medial, and end ellipsis 1108

14.4 Selected topics in conversational grammar 1108

14.4.1 A closer look at vocatives 1108

14.4.1.1 The distribution of vocatives 1111

14.4.2 Conducive yes-no interrogatives 1113

14.4.2.1 Negative yes-no interrogatives 1114

14.4.2.2 Negative v. positive yes-no interrogatives 1114

14.4.2.3 Assertive yes-no questions 1115

14.4.2.4 Assertive v. non-assertive yes-no questions 1115

14.4.3 First person imperatives with let's 1117

14.4.3.1 Common accompaniments of let's 1117

14.4.4 Direct speech reporting (quoted speech) 1118

14.4.4.1 Using utterance-launchers to open quoted speech 1118

14.4.4.2 Repetition of reporting clauses 1119

14.4.4.3 Reporting clauses with go 1119

14.4.4.4 Opening quoted speech with be + like, all 1120

14.4.4.5 The past progressive with reporting verbs 1120

14.4.5 Vernacular or non-standard grammar 1121

14.4.5.1 Morphophonemic variants 1122

14.4.5.2 Morphological variants 1122

14.4.5.3 Morphosyntactic variants 1123

14.4.5.4 Syntactic variants 1125

14.4.5.5 Conclusion 1125

Appendix 1128

Endnotes 1133

Bibliography 1139

Lexical index 1148

Conceptual index 1174