语言学教程PDF电子书下载

1．The Nature of Language 1

1.1 What does“language”mean？ 2

1.2 What is language？ 3

1.3　Design features 4

1.3.1 Arbitrariness 4

1.3.2　Duality 6

1.3.3　Productivity 6

1.3.4　Displacement 7

1.3.6　Interchangeability 8

1.3.5　Cultural transmission 8

1.4 Functions of language 10

1.4.1 Phatic 10

1.4 2 Directive 10

1.4.3 Informative 11

1.4.4 Interrogative 11

1.4.5 Expressive 12

1.4.6　Evocative 12

1.4.7　Performative 13

1.5　The origin of language 13

1.5.1　The divine-origin theory 14

1.5.3 The evolutionary theory 15

1.5.2 The invention theory 15

1.5.4 The first language 16

2．What is Linguistics？ 20

2.1 What is linguistics 20

2.2 Some basic distinctions in linguistics 22

2.2.1 Speech and writing 23

2.2.2 Descriptive er prescriptive？ 24

2.2.3 Synchronic and diachronic studies 25

2.2.4 Langue and parole 27

2.2.5 Competence and performance 28

2.2.6 Linguistic potential and actual linguisticbehaviour 29

2.3 Major branehes of general linguisties 30

2.3.1 Phonetics 30

2.3.2 Phonology 31

2.3.3 Morphology 31

2.3.4 Syntax 31

2.3.5 Semantics 32

2.4 Uses of linguistics 32

2.4.1 Linguistics and language teaching 32

2.4.2 Linguistics and society 33

2.4.3 Linguistics and literature 34

2.4.4 Linguistics and psychology 34

2.4.5 Some other applications 35

3．Phonetics 39

3.1 Scope of phonetics 39

3.1.1 Articulatory phonetics 39

3.1.2 Auditory phonetics 39

3.1.3 Acoustic phonetics 40

3.2 The vocal organs 40

3.2.1 The initiator of the air-stream 40

3.2.2 The vocal cords 41

3.2.3 The resonating cavities 43

3.3.1 Places of articulation 46

3.3 Consonants 46

3.3.2 Manners of articulation 48

3.3.3 The classification of consonants 51

3.4 Vowels 52

3.4.1 Cardinal vowels 53

3.4.2 The classification of vowels 54

3.5 Phonetic transcription 57

3.5.1 The International Phonetic Alphabet 58

3.5.2 Narrow and Broad Transcriptions 59

4．Phonology 64

4.1 Distinctiveness in speech sounds 64

4.2.1 Minimal pairs 65

4.2 The phoneme theory 65

4.2.2 Free variation 66

4.2.3 Complementary distribution 66

4.2.4 Phonemic similarity 67

4.2.5 Pattern congruity 68

4 3 A functional approach 69

4.3.1 Neutralization and archiphoneme 69

4.3.2 Distinctive features 70

4.4 Suprasegmental phonology 71

4 4.1 The syllable 72

4.4.2 Stress 73

4.4 3 Piteh 76

4.4.4 Intonation 77

5．Morphology 83

5.1 Morphology 83

5.1.1 Inflection 83

5.1.2 Word-formation 84

5.2 Word and morpheme 87

5.2 1 Morpheme 87

5.2.2 Morpheme and phoneme 87

5.2.4 Allomorph 88

5.2.3 Morphemic structure and phonological tructu re 88

5.3.1 Free morpheme and bound morpheme 90

5.3.2 Roots 90

5.3 Types of morphemes 90

5.3.3 Affix 91

5.3.4 Root and stem 92

5.4 Morphophonology and morphophonemics 93

5.4.1 Phonologically conditioned 93

5.4.2 Morphologically conditioned 94

6.2 Word 97

6.2.1 Three senses of“word” 97

6.1 Lexicon 97

6．Lexicon 97

6.2.2 The identification of words 99

6.2.3 Subclassification of words 101

6.2.4 Lexeme 105

6.3 Idiom 106

6.3.1 Two basic requirements 106

6.3.2 Factors which account for the forma-tion of idioms 108

6.3.3 Application of idioms 109

6.4.1 Mutual expectancy 110

6.4.2 Fixed syntactic-lexical relations 110

6.4 Collocation 110

6.4.3 Inexplicability 111

7．Syntax 114

7.1 Syntactic relations 114

7.1.1 Positional relation 114

7.1.2 Relation of substitutability 115

7.1.3 Relation of co-occurrence 116

7.2 Construction and constituent 116

7.2.1 Construction 116

7.2.2 Immediate constituent 117

7 2.3 Endocentric and exocentric const ructions 118

7.2.4 Coordinate and subordinate constructions 120

7.3 Syntactic function 121

7 3.1 Subject 121

7.3.2 Predicate 123

7.3.3 Object 124

7.3.4 The relation between classes and functions 125

7.4 Category 125

7.4.1 Number 126

7.4.2 Gender 126

7.4.3 Case 127

7.4.5 Government 128

7.4.4 Concord 128

7.5 Phrase,clause and sentence 129

7.5.1 Phrase 129

7.5.2 Clause 129

7.5.3 Sentence 130

7.6 The extension of sentence 132

7.6.1 Conjoining 132

7.6.2 Embedding 132

7.6.3 Recursiveness 132

7.7 Syntax beyond the sentence 133

7.6.4 Hypotactic and paratactic 133

7.7.1 Sentential connection 134

7.7.2 Cohesion 134

8．Semantics 139

8.1 What is semantics？ 139

8.2 What is meaning？ 139

8.2.1 The realist vs the nominalist 140

8.2.2 Conceptualism or mentalism 140

8.2.3 Mechanism 141

8.2.4 Contextualism 141

8.2.6 Functionalism 142

8.2.5 Behaviourism 142

8.3 Kinds of meaning 143

8.3.1 The traditional approach 143

8.3.2 The functional approach 143

8.3.3 The pragmatic approach 144

8.4 Sense relationships 144

8.4.1 Synonymy 145

8.4.2 Antonymy 146

8.4.3 Hyponymy 148

8.4.4 Polysomy and homonymy 149

8.4.5 Sense relations between sentences 150

8.5 Semantic analysis 153

8.5.1 Componential analysis 153

8.5.2 Predication analysis 155

8.5.3 Relational components 156

8.5.4 Logical elements 157

9．Writing 162

9.1 The growth of writing 162

9.1.1 The iconic stage 162

9.1.2 Word writing 162

9.1.3 Syllabic writing 164

9.1.4 Sound writing 164

9.2.1 Word writing system 165

9.2 The writing systems 165

9.2.2 Syllabic writing system 166

9.2.3 Sound writing system 166

9.3 Graphemics 167

9.3.1 Graphemes 167

9.3.2 Reference 168

9.4 Writing and speech 168

9.4.1 The graphemic system and the phonologicalsystem 168

9.4.3 The influence of one writing system onanother 170

9.4.2 Variation in graphemic representation 170

9.4.4 The disparity between speech and writing 171

9.4.5 The importance of writing 172

10．Language Variation 175

10.1 The changing language 175

10.2 Lexical change 175

10.2.1 Invention 176

10.2.2 Compounding 176

10.2.3 Blending 177

10.2.4 Abbreviation 178

10.2.5 Acronym 178

10.2.6 Metanalysis 179

10.2.8 Analogical creation 180

10.2.7 Baek-formation 180

10.2.9 Borrowing 181

10.3 Phonological change 183

10.3.1 Loss 183

10.3.2 Addition 184

10.3.3 Metathesis 185

10.3.4 Assimilation 185

10.4 Grammatical change 186

10.4.1 Morphological change 186

10.3.5 Dissimilation 186

10.4.2 Syntactical change 187

10.5 Semantic change 188

10.5.1 Broadening 189

10.5.2 Narrowing 190

10.5.3 Meaning shift 190

10.5.4 Class shift 191

10.5.5 Folk etymology 191

10.6 Orthographic change 192

11．Varieties of Language 196

11.1 English or Englishes？ 196

11.2.1 Regional dialect 197

11.2 Dialect 197

11.2.2 Temporal dialect 198

11.2.3 Social dialect 199

11.2.4 Standard dialect 204

11.2.5 Ideolect 205

11.2.6 Categorization of dialectal varieties 206

11.3 Register 206

11.3.1 Field of discourse 207

11.3.2 Mode of discourse 208

11.3.4 Categorization of diatypic varieties 209

11.3.3 Tenor of discourse 209

11.4 Discourse 210

12．Linguistic Comparison 215

12.1 Comparative and historical linguistics 215

12.1.1 Correspondence 215

12.1.2 The reconstruction of a proto-language 219

12.1.3 Language families 222

12.2 Linguistic typology 224

12.2.1 Phonetic typology 226

12.2.2 Phonological typology 226

12.2.3 Grammatical typology 228

12.2.4 Structural typology 228

12.2.5 Semantic typology 230

13．Language,Thought and Culture 237

13.1 Language as the dress of thought 237

13.1.1 The monistic view of language and thought 237

13.1.2 Reaction to the monistic view 238

13.1.3 Language facilitates thinking 238

13.2 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 239

13.2.1 Linguistic determinism 240

13.2.2 Linguistic relativity 243

13.3 Language and culture 246

13.3.1 Cultural and linguistic universals 246

13.3.2 Cultural and linguistic peculiarities 248

13.3.3 Language and culture:a dialectical relationship 250

14．Language and Society 254

14.1 Language as a social activity 254

14.1.1 Internal authority 254

14.1.2 External authority 255

14.2 Language planning 255

14.2.1 The standard language 256

14.2.2 The national language 257

14.2.3 The official language 259

14.3 The interrelation between language and society 260

14.3.1 Roles 260

14.3.2 Reputations 261

14.3.3 Domain 262

14.3.4 Communication codes 262

14.3.5 Code-switching 263

14.3.6 Language maintenance 263

14.4 The role of dictionaries and grammars as asocial force 263

14 4.1 Dictionaries 263

14.4.2 Grammars 264

15．Pragmatics 269

15.1 Introduction 269

15.2 Context and meaning 270

15.3 Speech act theory 271

15.3.1 Illocutionary acts 273

15.3.2 Types of illocutionary acts 274

15.3.3 Indirect speech acts 275

15.3.4 Difficulties in speech act theory 277

15.4 Conversational analysis 278

15.4.1 Adjacency pairs 278

15.4.2 Preferred second parts 279

15.4.3 Presequences 281

15.5 The Cooperative Principle(CP) 282

15.5.1 The cooperative principle and its Maxims 282

15.5.2 Conversational implicatures 283

15.5.3 Licensing violations of the Maxims 285

16．Linguistics and Literature 291

16.1 The function of linguistics in the study ofliterature 291

16.2 A method of linguistic analysis 293

16.2.1 Phonological features 293

16.2.2 Lexical features 295

16.2.3 Grammatical features 296

16.2.4 Semantic features 298

16.2.5 Graphological features 301

16.3.1 Deviation 303

16.3 The theory of foregrounding 303

16.3.2 Parallelism 305

16.3.3 Patterning 306

16.4 Stylistic Variants 307

Appendix Ⅰ．Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching 313

Ⅰ.1 The relation of linguistics to foreign languageteaching 313

Ⅰ.2 Various linguistic views and their significancein FL learning and teaching 315

Ⅰ.2.1 Traditional grammars 315

Ⅰ.2.2 Structuralist linguistics 316

Ⅰ.2.3 Transformational-Generative linguistics 316

Ⅰ.2.4 Functional linguistics 317

Ⅰ.2.5 The theory of communicative competence 318

Ⅰ.3 Syllabus design 319

Ⅰ.3.1 What is syllabus？ 319

Ⅰ.3.2 Major factors in syllabus design 320

Ⅰ.3.3 Types of syllabus 321

Ⅰ.4 Error analysis 329

Ⅰ.4.1 Errors,mistakes,and error analysis 329

Ⅰ.4.2 Attitudes to errors 330

Ⅰ.4.3 Procedure of error analysis 331

Ⅰ.4.4 Contrastive analysis and non-contrastiveanalysis 332

Ⅰ.5 Testing 334

Ⅰ.5.1 Two different approaches to testing 335

Ⅰ.5.2 Types of test 336

Ⅰ.5.3 Requirements of a good test 337

Ⅰ.5.4 Test content and test form 340

Ⅰ.5.5 Marking and interpretation of scores 341

Ⅰ.6 Summary 343

Appendix Ⅱ．Modern Linguistic Schools and Theories 350

Ⅱ.1 Ferdinand de Saussure 350

Ⅱ.1.1 Nature of the linguistic sign 350

Ⅱ.1.2 The relational nature of language units 352

Ⅱ.1.3 Langue and parole 354

Ⅱ.1.4 The relation between diachronic and synchronic studies 356

Ⅱ.2 The Prague School 358

Ⅱ.2.1 Introduction 358

Ⅱ.2.2 Phonological oppositions 360

Ⅱ.2.3 Functional sentence perspective(FSP) 362

Ⅱ.3 American structurahsm 365

Ⅱ.3.1 Introduction 365

Ⅱ.3.2 Structural grammar 367

Ⅱ.3.3 Behaviourist psychology in structuralism 370

Ⅱ.3.4 A comparison between traditional andstructural grammars 371

Ⅱ.4.1 Introduction 372

Ⅱ.4 Transformational-Generative grammar 372

Ⅱ.4.2 Chomsky s innateness hypothesis 374

Ⅱ.4.3 Phrase structure rules 377

Ⅱ.4.4 Transformational rules 379

Ⅱ.4.5 A comparison between structural grammarand TG grammar 383

Ⅱ.5 The London School 384

Ⅱ.5.1 Introduction 384

Ⅱ.5.2 Malinowski s theory of meaning 385

Ⅱ.5.3 Firth s theory of meaning 386

Ⅱ.5.4 Halliday s systemic grammar 388

Ⅱ.5.5 Halliday s functional grammar 393

Index (with Chinese translation) 398