CONTENTS 1
Preface Xu Chongxin 1
Forword Zheng Shengtao 2
CHAPTER ONE TRANSLATION AND CULTURAL EXCHANGE 16
Section Ⅰ．Culture and Its Aspects 16
Ⅰ．Definitions of Culture 16
Ⅱ． Main Aspects of Culture 17
1．Material Aspects of Culture 18
2．Intellectual Aspect of Culture 18
3．Communicative Aspect of Culture 18
4．Institutional Aspect of Culture 18
5．Conceptual Aspect of Culture 18
Section Ⅱ Cultural Differences and Translation 19
Ⅰ．Cultural Differences and Cultural Similarities 19
Ⅱ．Cultural Distance and Translation 21
1）Small linguistic and cultural distances 22
1．Four Relations Between Linguistic and Cultural Distances 22
Ⅲ．Linguistic and Cultural Distances 22
2）Large linguistic and cultural distances 23
3）Small cultural distance and large linguistic distance 23
4） Small linguistic distance and large cultural distance 23
2．Linguistic Distance Belongs to a Special Aspect of Cultural Distance 23
1）Different cultural focuses result in different concentrations of vocabulary 24
2）Semantic inequi valence results from cultural differences 24
Ⅳ．Cultural Differences，Cultural Exchange and Translation 25
1．Cultural exchange is one of the basic needs of modern human beings 27
2．Cultural exchange is one of the distinguishing features of the emergence of every culture 27
Section Ⅲ The Effects of Translation on Cultural Exchange 27
Ⅰ．Cultural Exchange and Its Importance 27
3．Cultural exchange is one of the prerequisites for the existence，development and flourishing of any culture 28
4．Cultural exchange is the only way on which we arrive at a world culture 28
5．Cultural exchange is one of the essential factors for the modernization of China 29
3）Translation is a“short-cut”in Iearning from other cultures 30
2）Translation breaks through cultual barriers 30
1）Translation is the most importtant tool for intercultural communication 30
1．Qualitative Analysis 30
（Ⅰ）Translation is the Most Important Way for Cultural Exchange 30
Ⅱ．Effects of Translation on Cultural Exchange 30
2．Quantitative Analysis 31
（Ⅱ）Translation Plays an Important Role in the Exchange of Every Aspectof Culture 31
1．Material Aspect of culture 31
3．Communicative Aspect of Culture 32
2） Analysis from the writer 32
1） Analysis from the development of literature 32
2．Intellectual Aspect of Culture 32
1） The survival of language 33
2）The study of language and linguistics 33
3） The introduction of loan words and borrowed expressions 33
4）Language changes and universal language 33
4．Institutional Aspect of Culture 34
5．Conceptual Aspect of Culture 34
Section Ⅳ A General Survey of Factors Affecting the Effects of Translation in Cultural Exchange 35
Ⅰ．The Difficulty in Cultural Exchange Through Translation 35
Ⅱ．Factors Involved in Cultural Exchange Through Translation 36
AND METHODS OF TRANSLATION 39
Section Ⅰ The concept of translation and Cultural Exchange 39
Ⅰ．The Development of the Concept of Translation and Cultural Exchange 39
CHAPTER TWO THE CONCEPT，CRITERIA 39
Ⅱ．Our Definition of Translation 40
3．Translation is a kind of intercultural communication 41
4．Translation is mainly for cultural exchange 41
2．Translation is the product of cultural exchange 41
1．Translation itseff is the process of cultural exchange 41
Ⅲ．In What Way the Deffmition of Translation Can Help Us 42
1．It rem inds us of avoiding using superficially equivalent words or phrases with different cultural backgrounds in nature 42
2．It requires us to avoid the nationalization of foreign culture in the interest of the reader 42
Section Ⅱ The Criteria of Translation and Cultural Exchange 43
Ⅰ．Different kinds of the Criteria of Trantslation and Cultural Exchange 44
1．The Trinity Principle of Faithfulness，Expressiveness and Elegance 44
2．The Equivalent-Effect Principle 46
Ⅱ．Our Criteria of Translation，Put Forth From the Point of View of Cultural Exchange 48
2） Replacing the cultural message of the SL text with that of the TL text intentionally or unintentionally 49
1．The Informativeness of the Cultural Message Transferred From the SL text to the TL Text 49
1）Misunderstanding of the cultural message of the SL text by the translator 49
3）The missing of the cultural message of SL 50
4） The adding of the cultural message 50
2．The Effectiveness of the Transferring of the Cultural Message 50
1）Maintaining the proper naturalness of the language used in translation 51
2）Using the present-day TL in translation 52
3）Interpreting where necessary 53
Section Ⅲ The Methods of Translation and Cultural Exchange 53
Ⅰ．Literal Translation or Semantic Translation 54
1．Literal Translation and Its Justification 54
2．Proper Literal Translation——The Most Effective Way for Promoting Cultural Exchange 54
3．Situations for the Application of Literal Translation 56
1）Important cultural symbols 56
2）Cultural characteristics of the form of TL 57
3）Quotations 58
4．Word-for-word Translation and Extreme Literalism 58
1．Free Translation and its advantages 59
Ⅱ． Free Translation or Communicative Translation 59
2．Proper Free Translation——An Effective Way for Promoting Cultural Exchange 60
3．Situations for the Application of Free Translation 60
1）Different expressions of the same objects or phenomena in different languages 61
2）Homophones 61
2）Changing the sentence structure of the original at will 62
3）Replacing cultural symbols of the SL with those of the TL 62
1）Undue extending of the original meaning 62
4．Radically Free Translation——Blocking cultural Exchange 62
4）Abstracting cultural symbols of SL textin TL test 63
5）Adding cultural symbols of TL 63
5．Combination of Literal Translation and Free Translation 63
Ⅲ．Footnotes 64
1．Making Footnotes and Its Justification 64
1）Solving some problems of untranslatability 64
2） Solving some problems of the unintelligibility of the TL text 65
3）Avoiding misleading 65
2．Making Good Footnotes——A Most Effective Way for Promoting Cultural Exchange Through Translation 66
4）Avoiding the missing of the cultural message of SL text 66
5）Increasing the knowledge of the TL reader 66
1）Accuracy 67
2）Ampleness 67
3）Conciseness 68
3．Types of Footnotes 68
1）Literal translation with footnotes 68
2）Free translation with footnotes 69
3）Transliteration with footnotes 69
4．Situations for the Application of Footnotes 69
1）Providing supplementary cultural data on proper names 70
2）Retaining figurative expressions 70
3）Explaining physical objects of special phenomena unknown in TL culture 70
4） Explaining contradictory customs 70
5）Providing cultural information on plays on words 71
6）Providing cultural information on allusions 71
9） Indicating the original text that does not make sense 72
8）Providing cultural background for TL reader to understand the translation better 72
7）Explaining culturally over-loaded sentences of TL text 72
10）Translating words，phrases or sentences in a third language of the SL text 73
Ⅳ．Other Methods of Translation 73
1． Transliteration and Borrowing——An Effective 73
Way for retaining the Original Cultural Message and Enriching TLCulture 73
1）Transliteration and its justification 73
（1）Proper names 75
2）Terminologies 75
2）Situations for the application of transliteration 75
（3） Objects，things and phenomena peculiar to the SL culture 76
（4）Plays on words 76
（5）Other situations 76
2．Writing the Cultural Background and Other Supplementary Information into the Text 76
1）Through the addition of necessary information．in parentheses 77
2）Throughthe addition of appositives 77
3）Through the addition of descriptive phrases 77
Section I Proper Names 79
CHAPTER THREE TREATMENTS OF SOME SPECIAL PHENOMENA OF SL AND CULTURAL EXCHANGE 79
Ⅰ．Transferring the Most Possible Cultural Messange to the TL Text 80
1．Preserving the Nationality of Proper Names 80
1）Avoiding the using of words or characters which seem to be a TL proper name in translation 81
2）Retaining the original order of proper names in the transliteration 82
3）Transliterating on the basis of the original pronunciation of the third language proper names 82
4）Direct borrowing of some SL proper names without any adjustmeni 82
2．Avoiding the exchange of wrong cultural messages 83
1）Incorrect pronunciation of SL proper names 83
2）Transliterating proper names for peoples derived 83
from proper names for places into Chinese 83
3）Transliterating JapaneseKorean or Vietnamese proper names in an Engligh text into Chinese 84
3．Conveying the Cultural Background of SL Proper Names Used Denotatively 85
1）The gender of proper names for persons 85
2）The same name used by the father and the son 86
3）Chmese names used by some Westerners 86
4）Names for persons containing names for places 87
6）Diminutives 88
5）Names consisting of given names and noble family names 88
7）Cultural characteristies of the per sons or places referred to by proper names 89
4．Transferring the Cultural Messages Literally Carried by Proper Names Used Both Denotativ■y and Connotalively 89
1）Transliteration with footnotes 91
2）Literal or semantic translation 91
3）Combination of transliteration and literal translation 92
1）Transliteration 93
2） Transliteration with footnotes 93
5．Retaining Both the Meaning and the Images of Proper Names Used Purely Denotatively 93
3） Free or communicative translation with footnotes 94
Ⅱ．Transferring the Cultural Messages of Proper Names Effectively 94
1．Avoiding the Inconsistency in Transliteration 94
2．Retaining the Traditionally Established Transliterated Forms of Proper Names 95
3．Using Common Characters in Transliteration into 95
Chinese 95
Section Ⅱ Idioms 96
Ⅰ．Literal Translation of SL Idioms 97
1．Advantages of Literal Translation of Idioms in the Respect of Cultural Exchange 97
1） Enriching the communicative（linguistic） aspect of TL culture by introducing new idioms or other fresh figurative expressions 98
2）More understanding or five aspects of SL culture 99
3） Transferring almost the whole cultural message carried by SL idioms 101
2．Situations in which SL Idioms Can Be Literally Translated 102
1） The SL idiom used in its literal sense 102
2） The SL idiom used both in its literal sense and its figurative sense 102
3） Other special contexts in which only literal translation can be used to render the SL idion 103
4）The SL idiom with obvious figurative meaning shown itself 103
5）Where the context will make the literal translation of the SL idiom acceptable to the TL reader 103
6） When a SL idiom has a seemingly corresponding TL idiom which is quite different in nature from the SL jdiom 103
3．Limitations of Literal Translation in Rendering ldioms 104
Ⅱ．Literal Translation of Idioms With pootnotes 105
1）To introduce allusiona of SL dioms 106
2） To explain the cultural background or cultural 106
characteristies of the images in SL idioms 106
3）To indicate the figurative meaning of SL idioms 107
4）To indicate the situations for the application of SL idioms 107
Ⅲ．Literal Translation of Idioms With the Addition of Explanatory Phrases 108
5）To explain the origins of SL idioms 108
1．Indicating the Figurative Meaning of the SL Idiom 109
1）In the form of a supplementary part following a dash 109
2）In the form of a coordinate part 109
3）In the form of logical predicate of the literal translation of the SL idiom 109
4）In the form of another sentence 109
5）In other form？ 110
2．Explaining the Cultura？ Characteristics of the Cultural R？kground of the Image in the SL Idiom 110
4．Indicating the Undertone or the Implied Sense 111
3．Transla？ng the Omitted Part of the SL Idiom 111
Ⅳ．Free Translation of Idioms 112
1．The Necessity of Free Tradslation in Rendering Idioms 112
2．Situations for the Application of Free Translatio？ in Rendering Idioms 113
1）Where incomprehensible TL text would otherwise be produced 113
2）Where misunderstanding on the part of the TL ？eader would otherwise a？se 113
3．Problems of Free Translation of Idioms in Limiting CulturalExchange 113
Ⅴ．Free Translation of Idioms With Footnotes 114
2） Avoidable sacrifice in the aspect of cultural exchange 114
cultural exchange 114
1）Unavoidable sacrifice in the aspect of 114
Ⅵ．Using Equivalent or Corresponding TL Idioms 115
1．The Possibility and Advantages of Using Equivalent or Corresponding TL Idioms 115
2．Situations for Using Equivalent or Corresponding TL Idioms 116
1）Same figurative meaning and same image 116
2）Same figurative meaning and similar image 116
3）Same meaning without any image in both the SL idiom and the corresponding TL idiom………………………（117 ）4）Same meaning without any image in both the SL idiom but with an image in the TL Idiom 117
5）Same figurative meaning and different images 117
3．Problems Caused by Using“Equivalent”or“Corresponding”TL Idioms in Limiting Cultural Exchange 118
1）Different figurative meanings 118
2）Different emotional meanings 120
3）Different situations for the application 121
4．Different cultural background and national colouring 122
Ⅶ． Combination of Literal Translation and Free Translation in Rendering Idioms 123
1．Maintaining the SL Image by Literal Translation and Reorganizing to Suit TL Expression by Free Translation 123
Ⅷ．Combination of Literal Translation and the Using of Equivaleut TL Idioms 125
1．Treating Part of the SL Idiom With Literal Translation and the Rest of It by Using an Equivalent TL Idiom 125
2．Treating the Main Part of t heIdiom With Literal Translation and the Rest of It With Free Translation……………………………（124 ）3．Treating One Idiom With Literal Translation and the Other With Free Translation 125
2．Treating the Whole SL Idiom With Literal Translation and Then Using an Equivalent TL Idiom to Explain the Meaning 126
CHAPTER FOUR TREATMENTS OF CONCEPTUAL CULTURE IN TRANSLATION 127
section Ⅰ Customs and Habits 127
Ⅰ．Customs and Habits and the Importance of Treating Them Correctly in Translation 127
1．Different Customs and Different Habits 127
2．The Importance of Correct Treatment of Customs and Habits in Translation 128
1．Avoiding Misunderstanding and Mistranslating Customs and Habits of SL Culture 129
Ⅱ． General Principles for Correct Treatment of Customs and Habits in Translation 129
2．Expressing the Different Customs and Habits of SL Culture Clearly and Faithfully in TL Text 130
1） Customs and habits described or mentioned directly in the SL Text 130
2） Customs and habits mentioned indirectly as part of the plots 131
3） Customs and habits as the basis on which figurative expressions can be formed 132
4） Names of cultural specialities associated with customs and habits 132
5）Customs and habits reflected in everyday talks 136
（1）Addressing people 136
（2）Greetings 137
1）Knowing customs and habits of TL culture well 139
3．Avoiding the TL Receptor’s Misunderstanding of Customs and habits of SL Culture 139
2）Sacrificing the expressing of the different customs and habits of SL Culture in TL text 141
（1）The unimportant customs and habits reflected in some SL idioms 141
（2）Different habits of expressing ideas，needs desires，feeling， etc．in intercultural contact 142
Section Ⅱ Psychological Structure 143
1．Different Psychological Structures and Their Reflections in the SLText 144
1．Different Psychological Structures 144
2．Reflections of Different Psychological Structures in the SL Text 145
Ⅱ． General Principles for Correct Treatments of Different Psychological Structures Reflected in the ST Text 146
1．Avoiding the Misunderstanding of the Different Psychological Structure Reflected in the SL Text on the Part of the Translator 147
2．Expressing the Different Psychological Structure Reflected in theSLTextClearly and Faithfully in the TL Text 148
3．Avoiding the TL Reader’s Misunderstanding of the Different Psychological Structure of the SL Culture 149
Ⅲ．Explicit and ImplicitWays ofExpressing Personal Emotion 150
1．Different Ways of Expressing Personal Emotion Between the Chinese People and the EnglishSpeaking People 150
2．IncorrectTreatments of the Different Ways of Expressing Personal Emotion in Translation 151
1）From Implicitness to explicitness 151
（1）Adding Some words explicitly denoting the implied meaning 151
（1）Replacing simple words with more learned ones 152
（2）Replacing the SL image with TL explanatory phrases 152
2）Fromexplicitness to implicitness 152
（2） U sing allusions in place of words or phrases explicitly stated 153
3．Correct Treatments of the Different Ways of Expressing Personal Emotion in Translation 153
Ⅳ．Different Terms for Psychological Experience or States 155
Ⅴ．Different Psychological Responses and Different Associative Meanings 156
1．Various Reasons for the Difference 156
1）Different geographical conditions 157
2）Different linguistic resources 157
3）Different literary traditions 157
4）Different myths and different legends 158
2．Various types of the Differences 158
1）Same images and different symbolically associative meanings 158
2） Same image and different figuratively associative meanings 159
3）Same image and different aesthetically associative meanings 160
Appendix 1 Summary in Chinese 162
Appendix 2 Works Cited 171