Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1
Protocols 1
1.1 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS 1
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Standards Creation Committees 2
1.2 STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS 2
Standards 2
1.3 Internet Standards 4
Regulatory Agencies 4
Forums 4
Maturity Levels 5
Requirement Levels 6
ISOC 7
1.4 INTERNET ADMINSTRATION 7
IANA and ICANN 8
IRTF 8
IAB 8
IETF 8
NIC 9
1.5 A BRIEF HISTORY 9
ARPANET 9
Birth of the Internet 9
TCP/IP Protocol 10
MILNET 10
CSNET 10
NSFNET 11
ANSNET 11
The Internet Today 11
Timeline 11
1.6 SUMMARY 12
Multiple Choice 13
1.7 PRACTICE SET 13
Exercises 15
Chapter 2 The OSI Model and the TCP/IP Protocol Suite 17
Chapter 2 The OSI Model and the TCP/IP Protocol Suite 17
2.1 THE OSI MODEL 17
Layered Architecture 18
Peer-to-Peer Processes 18
2.2 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL 21
Physical Layer 21
Data Link Layer 22
Network Layer 23
Transport Layer 24
Session Layer 25
Presentation Layer 26
Application Layer 27
Physical and Data Link Layers 28
Network Layer 28
2.3 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE 28
Transport Layer 30
Application Layer 31
2.4 ADDRESSING 31
Physical Address 31
Internet Address 32
Port Address 33
2.5 TCP/IP VERSIONS 34
Version 4 34
Version 5 35
Version 6 35
2.7 PRACTICE SET 36
2.6 SUMMARY 36
Multiple Choice 36
Exercises 39
Guided Media 41
Chapter 3 Underlying Technologies 41
3.1 TRANSMISSION MEDIA 41
Chapter 3 Underlying Technologies 41
Unguided Media 45
3.2 LOCAL AREA NETWORKS(LANS) 46
Ethernet 46
Token Ring 51
Fiber Distributed Data Interface(FDDI) 54
3.3 SWITCHING 56
Circuit Switching 57
Packet Switching 57
Message Switching 59
3.4 WIDE AREA NETWORKS(WANS) 59
Point-to-Point Protocol(PPP) 59
X.25 60
Frame Relay 62
Asynchronous Transfer Mode(ATM) 65
3.5 CONNECTING DEVICES 68
Repeaters 69
Bridges 70
Routers 72
3.6 SUMMARY 73
Gateways 73
3.7 PRACTICE SET 76
Multiple Choice 76
Exercises 82
Programming Exercises 84
Chapter 4 IP Addressing 85
Chapter 4 IP Addressing 85
4.1 DECIMAL NOTATION 86
4.2 CLASSES 87
Class A 87
Class B 87
Class C 88
Class D 88
Class E 88
Determining the Class of an Address 88
Extracting Netid and Hostid 89
Multihomed Devices 90
Location Not Names 90
4.3 SPECIAL ADDRESSES 91
Network Address 91
Direct Broadcast Address 91
Limited Broadcast Address 91
Specific Host on This Network 93
Loopback Address 93
This Host On This Network 93
4.4 A SAMPLE INTERNET 95
4.5 UNICAST MULTICAST AND BROADCAST ADDRESSES 96
Unicast Addresses 96
Multicast Addresses 96
Broadcast Addresses 98
4.6 APPLYING FOR IP ADDRESSES 98
Class of Address 98
Netids and Hostids 98
4.8 SUMMARY 99
Authorities 99
4.7 PRIVATE NETWORKS 99
4.9 PRACTICE SET 100
Multiple Choice 100
Exercises 103
Programming Exercises 107
5.1 SUBNETTING 109
Chapter 5 Subnetting and Supernetting 109
Chapter 5 Subnetting and Supernetting 109
Three Levels of Hierarchy 111
5.2 MASKING 111
Special Addresses in Subnetting 113
Contiguous vs.Noncontiguous Mask 113
5.3 EXAMPLES OF SUBNETTING 113
Subnetting Class A 114
Subnetting Class B 114
Subnetting Class C 117
5.4 VARIABLE-LENGTH SUBNETTING 117
5.5 SUPERNETTING 119
Supernet Mask 120
Classless Interdomain Routing(CIDR) 121
5.6 SUMMARY 122
Multiple Choice 123
5.7 PRACTICE SET 123
Exercises 125
Chapter 6 Delivery and Routing of IP Packets 131
6.1 CONNECTION-ORIENTED VS.CONNECTIONESS SERVICES 131
Chapter 6 Delivery and Routing of IP Packets 131
6．2 DIRECT VS.INDIRECT DELIVERY 132
Direct Delivery 132
Indirect Delivery 132
6.3 ROUTING METHODS 133
Next-Hop Routing 133
Network-Specific Routing 134
Host-Specific Routing 134
Default Routing 135
6.4 STATIC VS.DYNAMIC ROUTING 135
Static Routing Table 136
Dynamic Routing Table 136
Routing Table 137
6.5 ROUTING MODULE AND ROUTING TABLE DESIGN 137
Examples 139
Routing Module 139
6.6 SUMMARY 141
Multiple Choice 142
6.7 PRACTICE SET 142
Exercises 144
Programming Exercises 145
Chapter 7 Internet Protocol(IP) 147
7.1 DATAGRAM 147
Chapter 7 Internet Protocol(IP) 147
Maximum Transfer Unit(MTU) 152
7.2 FRAGMENTATION 152
Fields Related to Fragmentation 154
7.3 OPTIONS 156
Format 156
Option Types 157
7.4 CHECKSUM 163
Checksum Calculation at the Sender 163
Checksum Calculation at the Receiver 164
Checksum in the IP Packet 165
Example 165
7.5 IP DESIGN 165
Header-Adding Module 166
Processing Module 167
Queues 168
Routing Table 168
Fragmentation Module 169
Routing Module 169
MTU Table 169
Reassembly Table 170
Reassembly Module 170
7.6 SUMMARY 171
7.7 PRACTICE SET 172
Multiple Choice 172
Exercises 175
Programming Exercises 176
Chapter 8 ARP and RARP 179
Chapter 8 ARP and RARP 179
8.1 ARP 180
Packet Format 182
Encapsulation 183
Operation 183
Proxy ARP 184
8.2 ARP DESIGN 186
Cache Table 186
Output Module 188
Queues 188
Imput Module 189
Cache-Control Module 190
Examples of ARP 191
8.3 RARP 193
Packet Format 193
Encapsulation 195
Alternative Solutions to RARP 195
8.4 SUMMARY 195
8.5 PRACTICE SET 196
Multiple Choice 196
Exercises 198
Programming Exercises 199
Chapter 9 Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP) 201
Chapter 9 Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP) 201
9.1 TYPES OF MESSAGES 202
9.2 MESSAGE FORMAT 203
9.3 ERROR REPORTING 203
Destination Unreachable 204
Source Quench 206
Time Exceeded 208
Parameter Problem 209
Redirection 209
9.4 QUERY 211
Echo Request and Reply 211
Timestamp Request and Reply 212
Address Mask Request and Reply 214
Router Solicitation and Advertisement 215
9.5 CHECKSUM 216
Checksum Calculation 217
Checksum Testing 217
Example 217
9.6 ICMP DESIGN 217
Input Module 218
Output Module 219
9.7 SUMMARY 220
9.8 PRACTICE SET 220
Multiple Choice 220
Exercises 223
Programming Exercises 225
Chapter 10 Internet Group Management Protocol(IGMP) 227
10.1 MULTICASTING 227
Multicast Addresses 227
Chapter 10 Internet Group Management Protocol(IGMP) 227
Types of Messages 228
10.2 IGMP 228
Message Format 228
Operation of IGMP in a Single Network 229
Operation of IGMP in an Internet 231
Changing IP Addresses to Physical Addresses 232
10.3 ENCAPSULATION 233
10.4 MULTICAST BACKBONE(MBONE) 234
10.5 IGMP DESIGN 234
Group Table 234
Timers 235
Group-Joining Module 236
Group-Leaving Module 236
Input Module 237
Output Module 237
Examples of IGMP 238
10.6 SUMMARY 241
10.7 PRACTICE SET 242
Multiple Choice 242
Exercises 244
Programming Exercises 246
Chapter 11 User Datagram Protocol(UDP) 247
Chapter 11 User Datagram Protocol(UDP) 247
11.1 PROCESS-TO-PROCESS COMMUNICATION 248
Port Numbers 248
Socket Addresses 252
11.2 USER DATAGRAM 253
11.3 CHECKSUM 254
Checksum Calculation at Sender 255
Checksum Calculation at Receiver 255
An Example 255
Optional Use of the Checksum 256
11.4 UDP OPERATION 256
Connectionless Services 256
Encapsulation and Decapsulation 257
Flow and Error Control 257
Queuing 258
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing 259
11.5 USE OF UDP 260
11.6 UDP DESIGN 260
Control-Block Table 261
Input Queues 261
Control-Block Module 261
Input Module 262
Output Module 262
Examples 263
11.7 SUMMARY 264
11.8 PRACTICE SET 265
Multiple Choice 265
Exercises 268
Programming Exercises 269
Chapter 12 Transmission Control Protocol(TCP) 271
Chapter 12 Transmission Control Protocol(TCP) 271
12.1 PROCESS-TO-PROCESS COMMUNICATION 272
Port Addresses 272
Socket Addresses 274
12.2 TCP SERVICES 274
Stream Data Service 274
Full-Duplex Service 275
Reliable Service 275
12.3 SEGMENT 275
12.4 OPTIONS 278
12.5 CHECKSUM 281
12.6 FLOW CONTROL 281
Sliding Window 282
Window Management 283
Silly Window Syndrome 284
Error Detection and Conection 287
12.7 ERROR CONTROL 287
12.8 TCP TIMERS 290
Retransmission Timer 290
Persistence Timer 292
Keepalive Timer 292
Time-Waited Timer 293
12.9 CONNECTION 293
Connection Establishment 293
Connection Termination 295
Connection Resetting 296
12.10 STATE TRANSITION DIAGRAM 297
Client Diagram 298
Server Diagram 299
12.11 CONGESTION CONTROL 299
Pushing Data 301
Encapsulation and Decapsulation 301
Queuing 301
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing 301
12.12 TCP OPERATION 301
Urgent Data 303
12.13 TCP DESIGN 304
Transmission Control Blocks(TCBs) 304
Timers 306
Main Module 306
Input Processing Module 309
Output Processing Module 309
12.14 SUMMARY 310
12.15 PRACTICE SET 311
Multiple Choice 311
Exercises 316
Programming Exercises 318
Chapter 13 Routing Protocols(RIP,OSPF,and BGP) 319
Chapter 13 Routing Protocols(RIP,OSPF,and BGP) 319
13.1 INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR ROUTING 320
13.2 RIP 321
Distance Vector Routing 321
RIP Message Format 325
Requests and Responses 325
Timers in RIP 326
Slow Convergence 327
Instability 328
Some Remedies for Instability 329
RIP Version 2 331
Authentication 331
Encapsulation 332
13.3 OSPF 332
Areas 332
Link State Routing 333
Metric 333
Packet Format 342
Types of Packets 342
Encapsulation 350
13.4 BGP 350
Path Vector Routing 351
Types of Packets 353
Packet Format 353
Encapsulation 357
13.5 MULTICAST ROUTING 358
DVMRP 358
MOSPF 358
13.6 SUMMARY 358
Multiple Choice 360
13.7 PRACTICE SET 360
Exercises 365
Programming Exercises 368
Chapter 14 Application Layer and Client-Server Model 369
Chapter 14 Application Layer and Client-Server Model 369
14.1 CLIENT-SERVER MODEL 370
Client 371
Concurrency in Servers 372
Concurrency in Clients 372
14.2 CONCURRENCY 372
Server 372
14.3 PROCESSES 374
Concept 375
Process Identification 376
Process Creation 377
14.4 SUMMARY 380
14.5 PRACTICE SET 381
Multiple Choice 381
Exercises 384
Programming Exercises 385
Chapter 15 BOOTP and DHCP 387
15.1 BOOTP 387
Packet Format 387
Chapter 15 BOOTP and DHCP 387
Operation 390
Using TFTP 391
UDP Ports 391
Relay Agent 391
15.2 DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL(DHCP) 392
Leasing 392
DHCP Operation 392
Packet Format 394
15.3 SUMMARY 395
15.4 PRACTICE SET 396
Multiple Choice 396
Exercises 398
Programming Exercises 399
Chapter 16 Domain Name System(DNS) 401
16.1 NAME SPACE 401
Chapter 16 Domain Name System(DNS) 401
Flat Name Space 402
Hierarchical Name Space 402
16.2 DOMAIN NAME SPACE 402
Label 402
Domain Name 402
Domain 404
16.3 DISTRIBUTION OF NAME SPACE 405
Hierarchy of Name Servers 405
Zone 405
Root Server 406
16.4 DNS IN THE INTERNET 407
Primary and Secondary Servers 407
Generic Domains 407
Inverse Domain 409
Country Domains 409
16.5 RESOLUTION 410
Resolver 410
Mapping Names to Addresses 411
Mapping Addresses to Names 411
Recursive Resolution 412
Iterative Resolution 412
Caching 412
16.6 DNS MESSAGES 413
Header 414
16.7 TYPES OF RECORDS 416
Question Record 416
Resource Record 418
16.8 COMPRESSION 419
16.9 EXAMPLES 420
16.10 DDNS 423
16.11 ENCAPSULATION 424
16.12 SUMMARY 424
16.13 PRACTICE SET 425
Multiple Choice 425
Exercises 428
Chapter 17 TELNET and Rlogin 431
17.1 CONCEPT 431
Timesharing Environment 431
Chapter 17 TELNET and Rlogin 431
Login 432
17.2 NETWORK VIRTUAL TERMINAL(NVT) 433
17.3 NVT CHARACTER SET 434
Data Characters 434
Remote Control Characters 435
17.4 EMBEDDING 436
17.5 OPTIONS 436
17.6 OPTION NEGOTIATION 437
Enabling an Option 438
Disabling an Option 439
Example 440
Symmetry 441
17.7 SUBOPTION NEGOTIATION 441
17.8 CONTROLLING THE SERVER 442
17.9 OUT-OF-BAND SIGNALING 443
17.10 ESCAPE CHARACTER 444
Default Mode 445
Character Mode 445
Line Mode 445
17.11 MODE OF OPERATION 445
Default Mode 445
Character Mode 445
Line Mode 445
17.12 EXAMPLES 445
17.13 USER INTERFACE 447
17.14 RLOGIN(REMOTELOGIN) 448
TCP Port 448
Connection 448
Flow Control 449
Commands 449
Mode 450
17.15 SECURITY ISSUE 452
17.16 SUMMARY 452
17.17 PRACTICE SET 453
Multiple Choice 453
Exercises 457
Chapter 18 File Transfer Protocol(FTP) 459
Chapter 18 File Transfer Protocol(FTP) 459
Data Connection 460
Control Connection 460
18.1 CONNECTIONS 460
18.2 COMMUNICATION 461
Communication over Control Connection 461
Communication over Data Connection 462
18.3 COMMAND PROCESSING 464
Commands 464
Responses 467
18.4 FILE TRANSFER 469
18.5 USER INTERFACE 472
18.6 ANONYMOUS FTP 473
18.7 SUMMARY 473
18.8 PRACTICE SET 474
Multiple Choice 474
Exercises 476
19.1 MESSAGES 479
Chapter 19 Trivial File Transfer Protocol(TFTP) 479
Chapter 19 Trivial File Transfer Protocol(TFTP) 479
WRQ 480
DATA 480
RRQ 480
ACK 481
ERROR 481
19.2 CONNECTION 482
Connection Establishment 483
Connection Termination 483
19.3 DATA TRANSFER 483
Flow Control 484
Error Control 484
Sorcerer s Apprentice Bug 485
19.4 UDP PORTS 486
19.5 TETP EXAMPLE 487
19.6 TFTP OPTIONS 487
19.7 SECURITY 487
19.8 APPLICATIONS 489
19.9 SUMMARY 490
19.10 PRACTICE SET 490
Multiple Choice 490
Exercises 493
Chapter 20 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP) 495
Chapter 20 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP) 495
20.1 USER AGENT(UA) 497
Sending Mail 497
20.2 ADDRESSES 498
Local Part 498
Receiving Mail 498
Domain Name 499
20.3 DELAYED DELIVERY 499
Sender-Site Delay 499
Receiver-Site Delay 500
One-to-Many Expansion 501
20.4 ALIASES 501
Intermediate Delay 501
20.5 MAIL TRANSFER AGENT(MTA) 502
Many-to-One Expansion 502
20.6 COMMANDS AND RESPONSES 503
Commands 503
Responses 507
20.7 MAIL TRANSFER PHASES 508
Connection Establishment 508
Message Transfer 509
Connection Termination 509
20.8 MULTIPURPOSE INTERNET MAIL EXTENSIONS(MIME) 511
MIME-Version 512
Content-Type 512
Content-Transfer-Encoding 514
Content-Id 517
Content-Description 517
20.9 POST OFFICE PROTOCOL(POP) 517
20.10 SUMMARY 518
20.11 PRACTICE SET 518
Multiple Choice 518
Exercises 522
21.1 CONCEPT 525
Chapter 21 Simple Network Management Protocol(SNMP) 525
Chapter 21 Simple Network Management Protocol(SNMP) 525
Managers and Agents 526
21.2 SMI 526
Components 526
Name 527
Type 527
Encoding Method 529
21.3 MIB 532
Accessing MIB Variables 533
Lexicographic Ordering 535
21.4 SNMP 536
Messages 536
Format 537
Encoding 539
21.5 EXAMPLES 540
21.6 UDP PORTS 544
21.7 SUMMARY 545
21.8 PRACTICE SET 546
Multiple Choice 546
Exercises 549
Chapter 22 Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP) 551
Chapter 22 Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP) 551
22.1 HTTP TRANSACTION 552
Messages 552
22.2 REQUEST MESSAGES 552
Request Line 553
Methods 554
22.3 RESPONSE MESSAGE 555
Status Line 556
22.4 HEADER 558
General Header 559
Request Header 559
Response Header 560
Entity Header 560
22.5 EXAMPLES 560
22.6 PRACTICE SET 563
Multiple Choice 563
Exercises 566
23.1 HYPERTEXT AND HYPERMEDIA 567
Chapter 23 World Wide Web(WWW) 567
Chapter 23 World Wide Web(WWW) 567
23.2 BROWSER ARCHITECTURE 568
23.3 STATIC DOCUMENTS 569
23.4 HTML 569
Structure of a Web Page 571
Tags 571
Examples 575
23.5 DYNAMIC DOCUMENTS 577
23.6 COMMON GATEWAY INTERFACE(CGI) 578
CGI Program 578
Input 579
Environment Variables 579
Output 580
Examples 581
23.7 ACTIVE DOCUMENTS 583
Creation Compilation and Execution 583
23.8 JAVA 585
Classes and Objects 585
Instantiation 585
Inheritance 585
Packages 585
Skeleton of an Applet 586
Creation and Compilation 587
HTML Document 587
Examples 587
23.9 SUMMARY 591
23.10 PRACTICE SET 592
Multiple Choice 592
Exercises 596
Programming Exercises 597
24.1 SOME DEFINTIONS 599
Data Types Defined 599
Chapter 24 Socket Interface 599
Chapter 24 Socket Interface 599
Internet Address Structure 600
Internet Socket Address Structure 600
24.2 SOCKETS 600
Socket Types 602
24.3 BYTE ORDERING 602
Little-Endian Byte Order 603
Big-Endian Byte Order 603
Network Byte Order 604
Byte-Order Transformation 604
24.4 ADDRESS TRANSFORMATION 605
24.5 BYTE MANIPULATION FUNCTIONS 606
24.6 INFORMATION ABOUT REMOTE HOST 607
24.7 SOCKET SYSTEM CALLS 608
Socket 608
Bind 608
Connect 609
Listen 609
Sendto 610
Accept 610
Recvfrom 611
Read 611
Write 612
Close 612
24.8 CONNECTIONLESS ITERATIVE SERVER 612
Server 613
Client 614
24.9 UDP CLIENT-SERVER PROGRAMS 614
Server Porogram 615
Client Program 616
24.10 CONNECTION-ORIENTED CONCURRENT SERVER 618
Server 618
Client 620
24.11 TCP CLIENT-SERVER PROGRAMS 621
Server Program 622
Client Program 623
24.12 SUMMARY 625
24.13 PRACTICE SET 626
Multiple Choice 626
Exercises 631
Programming Exercises 631
Chapter 25 Next Generation:Ipv6 and ICMPv6 633
Chapter 25 Next Generation:Ipv6 and ICMPv6 633
25.1 IPV6 634
25.2 IPV6 ADDRESSES 634
Hexadecimal Colon Notation 634
Address Space Assignment 636
Categories of Addresses 636
Base Header 642
25.3 IPV6 PACKET FORMAT 642
Priority 644
Flow Label 645
Comparison between Ipv4 and Ipv6 Headers 646
Extension Headers 646
Comparison between Ipv4 and Ipv6 653
Error Reporting 654
25.4 ICMPV6 654
Query 658
25.5 TRANSITION FROM IPV4 TO IPV6 663
Dual Stack 664
Tunneling 664
Header Translation 665
25.6 SUMMARY 667
25.7 PRACTICE SET 668
Multiple Choice 668
Exercises 673
Programming Exercises 675
Appendix A ASCII Code 677
Appendix A ASCII Code 677
Appendix B Numbering Systems and Transformation 683
Appendix B Numbering Systems and Transformation 683
B.1 NUMBERING SYSTEMS 683
Binary Numbers 684
Decimal Numbers 684
Octal Numbers 685
Hexadecimal Numbers 686
B.2 TRANSFORMATION 687
From Other Systems to Decimal 688
From Decimal to Other Systems 688
From Binary to Octal or Hexadecimal 688
From Octal or Hexadecimal to Binary 689
Appendix C Representation of Binary Numbers 691
C.1 UNSIGNED NUMBERS 691
Appendix C Representation of Binary Numbers 691
C.2 SIGNED NUMBERS 692
Sign-and-Magnitude 692
One s Complemet 694
Two s Complement 695
C.3 MORE ABOUT ONE S COMPLEMENT 696
Finding the Complement 696
Adding Two Numbers 697
Appendix D Error Detection 699
Appendix D Error Detection 699
D.1 TYPES OF ERRORS 699
Single-Bit Error 700
Multiple-Bit Error 700
Burst Error 700
D.2 DETECTION 701
Redundancy 701
Vertical Redundancy Check(VRC) 702
Longitudinal Redundancy Check(LRC) 703
Cyclic Redundancy Check(CRC) 703
Checksum 706
Appendix E Encryption/Decryption 707
Appendix E Encryption/Decryption 707
E.1 CONVENTIONAL METHODS 707
DES 708
E.2 PUBLIC KEY METHODS 709
RSA Encyption 710
E.3 AUTHENTICATION 711
Appendix F MIB Objects 713
F.1 SYSTEM GROUP 713
F.2 INTERFACE GROUP 713
Appendix F MIB Objects 713
F.3 IP GROUP 715
F.4 ICMP GROUP 717
F.5 TCP GROUP 718
F.6 UDP GROUP 719
Appendix G High-Level Data Link Control(HDLC) 721
Appendix G High-Level Data Link Control(HDLC) 721
G.1 STATION TYPES 721
G.2 CONFIGURATIONS 721
G.3 MODES OF COMMUNICATION 722
NRM 723
ARM 723
ABM 723
G.4 FRAMES 724
G.5 MORE ABOUT FRAMES 726
I-frames 727
S-frames 727
U-frames 727
G.6 LINK ACCESS PROCEDURES(LAPS) 728
LAPB 728
LAPD 728
LAPM 728
Appendix H Project 802 729
Appendix H Project 802 729
H.1 PROJECT 802.1 730
H.2 PROJECT 802.2 730
LLC 731
MAC 731
Appendix I ASN.1 733
Appendix I ASN.1 733
1.1 DATA TYPES AND VALUES 733
Simple Type 733
Structured Type 734
Tags 735
Subtyping 735
Values 735
1.2 MODULES AND MACROS 736
Modules 736
Macros 736
Appendix J Spanning Tree 737
Appendix J Spanning Tree 737
J.1 SPANNING TREES AND BRIDGES 738
Algorithm 739
Forming the Spanning Tree 740
Example 740
J.2 SPANNING GREES AND MULTICAST ROUTING 742
Appendix K Contact Addresses 743
Appendix K Contact Addresses 743
Appendix L RFCs 745
Appendix L RFCs 745
Appendix M UDP and TCP Ports 747
Appendix M UDP and TCP Ports 747
Solutions 749
Solutions 749
Acronyms 773
Acronyms 773
Glossary 781
Glossary 781
References 809
References 809
Index 811
Index 811