Part One PROCESS INVENTION—HEURISTICS AND ANALYSIS 3
1.The Design Process 3
1.0 Objectives 3
1.1 Primitive Design Problems 3
Typical Primitive Design Problem 5
Process Design Team 5
Industrial Consultants 5
1.2 Steps in Designing and Retrofitting Chemical Processes 6
Assess Primitive Problem 6
Survey Literature 8
Process Creation 10
Development of Base Case 10
Detailed Process Synthesis Using Algorithmic Methods 11
Plantwide Controllability Assessment 11
Detailed Design,Equipment Sizing and Cost Estimation,Profitability Analysis,and Optimization 12
Written Process Design Report and Oral Presentation 12
Final Design,Construction,Start-up,and Operation 12
Summary 13
1.3 Environmental Protection 13
Environmental Issues 13
Environmental Factors in Process Design 15
Environmental Design Problems 18
1.4 Safety Considerations 19
Safety Issues 19
Design Approaches Toward Safe Chemical Plants 22
1.5 Engineering Ethics 23
1.6 Role of Computers 27
Spreadsheets 28
Mathematical Packages 28
Process Simulators 28
Computational Guidelines 30
1.7 Summary 30
References 31
2.Process Creation 32
2.0 Objectives 32
2.1 Introduction 32
2.2 Preliminary Database Creation 32
Thermophysical Property Data 33
Environmental and Safety Data 37
Chemical Prices 37
Summary 38
2.3 Experiments 38
2.4 Preliminary Process Synthesis 38
Continuous or Batch Processing 39
Chemical State 41
Process Operations 42
Synthesis Steps 44
Example of Process Synthesis:Manufacture of Vinyl Chloride 45
Synthesis Tree 56
Heuristics 56
Algorithmic Methods 57
2.5 Development of the Base-Case Design 57
Detailed Process Flowsheet 57
Process Integration 60
Detailed Database 60
Pilot-Plant Testing 61
Process Simulation 62
2.6 Summary 62
References 62
Exercises 63
3.Simulation to Assist in Process Creation 64
3.0 Objectives 64
3.1 Introduction 65
3.2 Principles of Flowsheet Simulation 66
Process and Simulation Flowsheets 66
Unit Subroutines 77
Calculation Order 79
Recycle 79
Recycle Convergence Methods 87
Flash with Recycle Problem 89
Degrees of Freedom 90
Control Blocks—Design Specifications 91
Flash Vessel Control 94
Bidirectional Information Flow(HYSYS) 94
3.3 Synthesis of the Toluene Hydrodealkylation Process 98
Process Simulation 101
3.4 Simulation of the Monochlorobenzene Separation Process 104
Use of Process Simulators 105
3.5 Summary 106
References 107
Exercises 107
4.Heuristics for Process Synthesis 112
4.0 Objectives 112
4.1 Introduction 113
4.2 Raw Materials and Chemical Reactions 114
4.3 Distribution of Chemicals 116
Inert Species 117
Purge Streams 119
Recycle to Extinction 122
Selectivity 123
Reactive Separations 125
4.4 Separations 126
4.5 Heat Removal from and Addition to Reactors 128
Heat Removal from Exothermic Reactors 128
Heat Addition to Endothermic Reactors 131
4.6 Pumping and Compression 132
4.7 Summary 134
References 134
Exercises 135
Part Two DETAILED PROCESS SYNTHESIS—ALGORITHMIC METHODS 141
5.Synthesis of Separation Trains 141
5.0 Objectives 141
5.1 Introduction 141
5.2 Criteria for Selection of Separation Methods 145
5.3 Selection of Equipment 148
5.4 Sequencing of Ordinary Distillation Columns 150
5.5 Sequencing of General Vapor-Liquid Separation Processes 156
5.6 Sequencing of Azeotropic Distillation Columns 170
Azeotropy and Polyazeotropy 170
Residue Curves 175
Distillation Towers 178
Separation Train Synthesis 188
5.7 Separation Systems for Gas Mixtures 194
Membrane Separation by Gas Permeation 197
Adsorption 197
Absorption 198
Partial Condensation and Cryogenic Distillation 199
5.8 Separation Sequencing for Solid-Fluid Systems 199
5.9 Summary 201
References 201
Exercises 202
6.Second Law Analysis 207
6.0 Objectives 207
6.1 Introduction 207
6.2 The System and the Surroundings 210
6.3 Energy Transfer 212
6.4 Thermodynamic Properties 213
6.5 Equations for Second Law Analysis 215
6.6 Examples of Lost-Work Calculations 219
6.7 Thermodynamic Efficiency 222
6.8 Causes of Lost Work 223
6.9 Three Examples of Second Law Analysis 224
6.10 Summary 237
References 237
Exercises 238
7.Heat and Power Integration 243
7.0 Objectives 243
7.1 Introduction 244
Heat Integration Software 247
7.2 Minimizing Utilities in Heat Integration 247
Temperature-Interval Method 248
Using Graphical Displays 251
Linear Programming Method 254
7.3 Stream Matching at Minimum Utilities 256
Stream Matching at the Pinch 256
Stream Matching Using a Mixed-Integer Linear Program 263
7.4 Minimum Number of Heat Exchangers—Breaking Heat Loops 267
7.5 Optimum Approach Temperature 271
7.6 Superstructures for Minimization of Annualized Cost 274
7.7 Heat-Integrated Distillation Trains 279
Effect of Pressure on Heat Integration 279
Multiple-Effect Distillation 281
Heat Pumping,Vapor Recompression,and Reboiler Flashing 284
Superstructures for Minimization of Annualized Cost 284
7.8 Heat Engines and Heat Pumps 286
Positioning Heat Engines and Heat Pumps 289
Optimal Design 292
7.9 Summary 295
References 295
Exercises 296
Part Three DETAILED DESIGN,EQUIPMENT SIZING,ECONOMICS,AND OPTIMIZATION 303
8.Heat Exchanger Design 303
8.0 Objectives 303
8.1 Introduction 303
Heat Duty 303
Heat Transfer Media 305
Temperature-Driving Force for Heat Transfer 308
Pressure Drop 312
8.2 Equipment for Heat Exchange 312
Double-Pipe Heat Exchangers 312
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 314
Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers 319
Compact Heat Exchangers 320
Temperature-Driving Forces in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 321
8.3 Heat Transfer Coefficients and Pressure Drop 326
Estimation of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 327
Estimation of Individual Heat Transfer Coefficients and Frictional Pressure Drop 327
Turbulent Flow in Straight,Smooth Ducts,Pipes,and Tubes of Circular Cross Section 329
Turbulent Flow in the Annular Region Between Straight,Smooth,Concentric Pipes of Circular Cross Section 331
Turbulent Flow on the Shell Side of Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 331
Heat Transfer Coefficients for Laminar-Flow,Condensation,Boiling,and Compact Heat Exchangers 332
8.4 Design of Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 333
8.5 Summary 335
References 335
Exercises 336
9.Capital Cost Estimation 338
9.0 Objectives 338
9.1 Introduction 338
9.2 Cost Charts 339
Cost Indices 342
Installation Costs 342
Materials and Pressure Considerations 344
Equipment Sizes 344
Other Investment Costs 345
Lang Factor Method 348
9.3 Equations 348
Heat Exchangers 348
Cylindrical Process Vessels 349
Trays 349
Blowers and Compressors 349
9.4 ASPEN PLUS 351
Project Dates 353
Equipment Lists 353
Equipment Size and Cost Specifications 356
Remaining Investment Costs 361
Cost Indices 363
Results 364
9.5 Detailed Cost Estimation 368
9.6 Summary 369
References 369
Exercises 370
10.Profitability Analysis 374
10.0 Objectives 374
10.1 Introduction 374
10.2 Cost Sheet 375
10.3 Total Capital Investment and Approximate Profitability Measures 378
Working Capital 378
Approximate Profitability Measures 378
10.4 Time Value of Money 384
Compound Interest 384
Annuities 386
Comparison of Equipment Purchases 388
10.5 Cash Flow 391
Depreciation 392
Profitability Measures 393
Net Present Value 393
Investor's Rate of Return 394
10.6 ASPEN PLUS 396
Cost Sheet 396
Working Capital 401
Profitability Measures 401
Results 404
10.7 Detailed Cost Estimation 408
10.8 Summary 408
References 409
Exercises 409
11.Optimization of Process Flowsheets 416
11.0 Objectives 416
11.1 Introduction 416
11.2 Nonlinear Program 417
Objective Function 417
Equality Constraints 418
Inequality Constraints 418
General Formulation 419
11.3 Optimization Algorithm 419
Repeated Simulation 421
Infeasible Path Approach 421
Compromise Approach 422
Practical Aspects of Flowsheet Optimization 422
11.4 Flowsheet Optimizations—Case Studies 423
11.5 ASPEN PLUS 425
Entering the NLP 425
Adjusting the Simulation Flowsheet 426
11.6 Summary 433
References 433
Exercises 433
Part Four PLANTWIDE CONTROLLABILITY ASSESSMENT 439
12.Interaction of Process Design and Process Control 439
12.0 Objectives 439
12.1 Introduction 439
12.2 Control System Configuration 444
Classification of Process Variables 444
Degrees-of-Freedom Analysis 446
12.3 Qualitative Plantwide Control System Synthesis 449
12.4 Summary 454
References 456
Exercises 456
13.Flowsheet Controllability Analysis 457
13.0 Objectives 457
13.1 Quantitative Measures for Controllability and Resiliency 458
Relative-Gain Array(RGA) 459
Disturbance Cost and Disturbance Condition Number 467
13.2 Toward Automated Flowsheet C＆R Diagnosis 471
Short-Cut C＆R Diagnosis 471
Generating Low-Order Dynamic Models 472
Tutorial:C＆R Analysis for Heat-Integrated Distillation Columns 474
13.3 Case Studies 480
13.4 MATLAB for C＆R Analysis 493
13.5 Summary 496
References 496
Exercises 497
14.Dynamic Simulation of Process Flowsheets 500
14.0 Objectives 500
14.1 Fundamental Concepts in Dynamic Simulation 500
14.2 Dynamic Simulation Using HYSYS 501
14.3 Control-Loop Definition 502
14.4 Controller Tuning Methods 504
On-Line PI Controller Tuning 504
Model-Based PI Controller Tuning 505
14.5 Tutorial Exercise:Control of a Binary Distillation Column 509
14.6 Case Studies 522
14.7 Summary 532
References 532
Exercises 532
Part Five DESIGN REPORT 537
15.Written Process Design Report and Oral Presentation 537
15.0 Objectives 537
15.1 Written Report 538
Sections of the Report 538
Preparation of the Written Report 543
Page Format 544
Sample Design Reports 545
15.2 Oral Design Presentation 546
Typical Presentation 546
Media for the Presentation 546
Rehearsing the Presentation 547
Written Handout 547
Evaluation of the Oral Presentation 547
Videotapes 549
15.3 Award Competition 549
15.4 Summary 549
References 549
APPENDIXES 551
Ⅰ.ASPEN PLUS in Process Design 551
A-Ⅰ.1 ASPEN PLUS Input Forms 551
A-Ⅰ.2 Drawing an ASPEN PLUS Flowsheet 553
A-Ⅰ.3 ASPEN PLUS Paragraphs 553
A-Ⅰ.4 Nested Recycle Loops 554
A-Ⅰ.5 Design Specifications 557
A-Ⅰ.6 Inline FORTRAN 559
A-Ⅰ.7 Case Study:Monochlorobenzene Separation Process 565
ASPEN PLUS Simulation Flowsheet and Input 565
Interpretation of Program Output 565
Ⅱ.HYSYS in Process Design 581
A-Ⅱ.1 The HYSYS Modeling Environment 581
A-Ⅱ.2 Steady-State Simulation 584
Acyclic Processes 584
Processes Involving Recycle 605
Subflowsheets 609
Multistage Separation Using the Column Subflowsheet 609
Optimization 618
A-Ⅱ.3 Case Study 627
References 629
Ⅲ.Phase Equilibria and Process Unit Models 630
A-Ⅲ.1 Phase Equilibria 630
A-Ⅲ.2 Flash Vessels 630
A-Ⅲ.3 Pumps 642
A-Ⅲ.4 Compressors and Expanders 644
A-Ⅲ.5 Heat Exchangers 646
Heat Requirement Models 647
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 647
A-Ⅲ.6 Chemical Reactors 651
Stoichiometric Reactor Models 652
Equilibrium Reactor Models 654
Kinetic Reactor Models 655
A-Ⅲ.7 Separators 666
Split-Fraction(Black Box)Models 667
Distillation:Fenske(Winn)-Underwood-Gilliland Shortcut Design 667
Distillation:Edmister Approximate Group Method 672
Distillation:Rigorous Simulation Using the Unabridged MESH Equations 673
References 679
Ⅳ.Physical Property Estimation,Solids Handling,and Electrolytes 680
A-Ⅳ.1 Physical Property Estimation 680
Data Banks 680
Property Estimation 681
ASPEN PLUS 686
Estimating Parameters for Pure Species 690
Selection of Property Estimation Methods and Property Data Regression 692
A-Ⅳ.2 Nonconventional Components and Substreams 698
Substreams 700
Stream Classes 702
A-Ⅳ.3 Solids Handling 703
A-Ⅳ.4 Electrolytes 709
Chemical and Phase Equilibrium 709
Electrolytes in Process Simulators 716
References 720
Ⅴ.Residue Curves for Heterogeneous Systems 722
Ⅵ.Successive Quadratic Programming 723
A-Ⅵ.1 NLP and Stationarity Conditions 723
A-Ⅵ.2 Solution of the Stationarity Equations 724
References 725
Ⅶ.General Algebraic Modeling Systems(GAMS) 726
A-Ⅶ.1 Input File 727
Statements 728
A-Ⅶ.2 Expanded Features:Documentation,Variable Redeclaration,and Display 730
A-Ⅶ.3 Expanded Features:Sets,Tables,Parameters and Scalars,and Equation Grouping 734
A-Ⅶ.4 Debugging 737
References 739
Ⅷ.Design Problem Statements 740
A-Ⅷ.0 Contents and Introduction 740
A-Ⅷ.1 Petrochemicals 742
A-Ⅷ.2 Petroleum Products 748
A-Ⅷ.3 Gas Manufacture 749
A-Ⅷ.4 Foods 752
A-Ⅷ.5 Pharmaceuticals 754
A-Ⅷ.6 Polymers 755
A-Ⅷ.7 Environmental—Air Quality 758
A-Ⅷ.8 Environmental—Water Treatment 767
A-Ⅷ.9 Environmental—Soil Treatment 771
A-Ⅷ.10 Environmental—Miscellaneous 774
Ⅸ.Dynamic Simulation Using DYNAPLUS 778
A-Ⅸ.1 Introduction 778
A-Ⅸ.2 Procedure for Dynamic Simulation 779
A-Ⅸ.3 Control-Loop Definition in DYNAPLUS 779
A-Ⅸ.4 Tutorial Exercise:Control of a Binary Distillation Column 780
A-Ⅸ.5 Dynamic Simulation of the MCB Separation Process 791
Ⅹ.Heuristics for Process Equipment Design 795
Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 795
Conveyors for Particulate Solids 796
Cooling Towers 796
Crystallization from Solution 797
Disintegration 797
Distillation and Gas Absorption 798
Drivers and Power Recovery Equipment 799
Drying of Solids 799
Evaporators 800
Extraction,Liquid-Liquid 800
Filtration 801
Fluidization of Particles with Gases 801
Heat Exchangers 802
Insulation 802
Mixing and Agitation 803
Particle Size Enlargement 803
Piping 804
Pumps 804
Reactors 804
Refrigeration 805
Size Separation of Particles 805
Utilities:Common Specifications 806
Vessels(Drums) 806
Vessels(Pressure) 806
Vessels(Storage Tanks) 807
Ⅺ.Materials of Construction 808
Ⅻ.Generation of Linear Models in Standard Forms 810
Author Index 815
Subject Index 817