CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1-1 Note to Students 1
1-2 Definition of a Fluid 3
1-3 Scope of Fluid Mechanics 4
1-4 Basic Equations 4
1-5 Methods of Analysis 5
System and Control Volume 5
Differential versus Integral Approach 8
Methods of Description 8
1-6 Dimensions and Units 10
Systems of Dimensions 11
Systems of Units 11
Preferred Systems of Units 13
1-7 Summary 13
Problems 13
CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 17
2-1 Fluid as a Continuum 17
2-2 Velocity Field 19
One-, Two-, and Three- Dimensional Flows 20
Timelines, Pathlines, Streaklines, and Streamlines 21
2-3 Stress Field 24
2-4 Viscosity 26
Newtonian Fluid 28
Non-Newtonian Fluids 30
2-5 Surface Tension 32
2-6 Description and Classification of Fluid Motion 35
Viscous and Inviscid Flows 35
Laminar and Turbulent Flows 38
Compressible and Incompressible Flows 39
Internal and External Flows 40
2-7 Summary 42
References 42
Problems 42
CHAPTER 3 FLUID STATICS 52
3-1 The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics 52
3-2 The Standard Atmosphere 56
3-3 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid 57
Incompressible Liquids: Manometers 57
Gases 63
3-4 Hydraulic Systems 66
3-5 Hydrostatic Force on Submerged Surfaces 66
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Submerged Surface 66
Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Submerged Surface 74
3.6 Buoyancy and Stability 78
3-8 Summary 82
References 82
Problems 83
CHAPTER 4 BASIC EQUATIONS IN INTEGRAL FORM FOR A CONTROL VOLUME 99
4-1 Basic Laws for a System 99
Conservation of Mass 99
Newton's Second Law 100
The Angular-Momentum Principle 100
The First Law of Thermodynamics 100
The Second Law of Thermodynamics 101
4-2 Relation of System Derivatives to the Control Volume Formulation 101
Derivation 102
Physical Interpretation 104
4-3 Conservation of Mass 105
Special Cases 106
4-4 Momentum Equation for Inertial Control Volume 112
Differential Control Volume Analysis 124
Control Volume Moving with Constant Velocity 129
4-5 Momentum Equation for Control Volume with Rectilinear Acceleration 131
4-7 The Angular-Momentum Principle 139
Equation for Fixed Control Volume 139
4-8 The First Law of Thermodynamics 144
Rate of Work Done by a Control Volume 144
Control Volume Equation 146
4-9 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 151
4-10 Summary 152
Problems 152
CHAPTER 5 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID MOTION 184
5-1 Conservation of Mass 184
Rectangular Coordinate System 184
Cylindrical Coordinate System 189
5-2 Stream Function for Two-Dimensional Incompressible Flow 193
5-3 Motion of a Fluid Particle (Kinematics) 197
Fluid Translation: Acceleration of a Fluid Particle in a Velocity Field 197
Fluid Rotation 203
Fluid Deformation 207
5-4 Momentum Equation 211
Forces Acting on a Fluid Particle 212
Differential Momentum Equation 213
Newtonian Fluid: Navier-Stokes Equations 213
5-5 Summary 222
References 223
Problems 223
CHAPTER 6 INCOMPRESSIBLE INVISCID FLOW 232
6-1 Momentum Equation for Frictionless Flow: Euler's Equation 232
6-2 Euler's Equations in Streamline Coordinates 233
6-3 Bernoulli Equation-Integration of Euler's Equation along a Streamline for Steady Flow 237
Derivation Using Streamline Coordinates 237
Derivation Using Rectangular Coordinates 238
Static, Stagnation, and Dynamic Pressures 239
Applications 243
Cautions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation 248
6-4 The Bernoulli Equation Interpreted as an Energy Equation 249
6-5 Energy Grade Line and Hydraulic Grade Line 254
6-8 Summary 256
References 257
Problems 257
CHAPTER 7 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILITUDE 273
7-1 Nondimensionalizing the Basic Differential Equations 273
7-2 Nature of Dimensional Analysis 275
7-3 Buckingham Pi Theorem 277
7-4 Determining the Pi Groups 278
7-5 Significant Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics 284
7-6 Flow Similarity and Model Studies 286
Incomplete Similarity 289
Scaling with Multiple Dependent Parameters 295
Comments on Model Testing 298
Summary 299
References 300
Problems 301
CHAPTER 8 INTERNAL INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS FLOW 310
8-1 Introduction 310
PART A. FULLY DEVELOPED LAMINAR FLOW 312
8-2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow between Infinite Parallel Plates 312
Both Plates Stationary 312
Upper Plate Moving with Constant Speed, U 318
8-3 Fully Developed Laminar Flow in a Pipe 324
PART B. FLOW IN PIPES AND DUCTS 328
8-4 Shear Stress Distribution in Fully Developed Pipe Flow 329
8-5 Turbulent Velocity Profiles in Fully Developed Pipe Flow 330
8-6 Energy Considerations in Pipe Flow 334
Kinetic Energy coefficient 335
Head Loss 335
8-7 Calculation of Head Loss 336
Major Loss: Friction Factor 336
Minor Losses 341
Pumps, Fans, and Blowers in Fluid Systems 347
Noncircular Ducts 348
8-8 Solution of Pipe Flow Problems 349
Single-Path Systems 350
Multiple-Path Systems 364
PART C. FLOW MEASUREMENT 369
8-9 Direct Methods 369
8-10 Restriction Flow Meters for Internal Flows 370
The Orifice Plate 373
The Flow Nozzle 374
The Venturi 376
The Laminar Flow Element 376
8-11 Linear flow Meters 380
8-12 Traversing Methods 382
8-13 Summary 383
References 383
Problems 385
CHAPTER 9 EXTERNAL INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS FLOW 409
PART A. BOUNDARY LAYERS 410
9-1 The Boundary-Layer Concept 410
9-2 Boundary-Layer Thicknesses 412
9-4 Momentum Integral Equation 415
9-5 Use of the Momentum Integral Equation for Flow with Zero Pressure Gradient 421
Laminar Flow 422
Turbulent Flow 426
9-6 Pressure Gradients in Boundary-Layer Flow 430
PART B. FLUID FLOW ABOUT IMMERSED BODIES 433
9-7 Drag 433
Flow over a Flat Plate Parallel to the Flow: Friction Drag 434
Flow over a Flat Plate Normal to the Flow: Pressure Drag 437
Flow over a Sphere and Cylinder: Friction and Pressure Drag 438
Streamlining 445
9-8 Lift 447
9-9 Summary 464
CHAPTER 10 FLUID MACHINERY 487
10-1 Introduction and Classification of Fluid Machines 487
Machines for Doing Work on a Fluid 488
Machines for Extracting Work (Power) from a Fluid 489
10-2 Scope of Coverage 490
10-3 Turbomachinery Analysis 491
The Angular-Momentum Principle 491
Euler Turbomachine Equation 491
Velocity Diagrams 493
Hydraulic Power 501
10-4 Performance Characteristics 502
Performance Parameters 503
Dimensional Analysis and Specific Speed 514
Similarity Rules 519
Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head 524
10-5 Applications to Fluid Systems 528
Machines for Doing Work on a Fluid 529
Machines for Extracting Work (Power) from a Fluid 561
10-6 Summary 571
References 572
Problems 574
CHAPTER 11 INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 589
11-1 Review of Thermodynamics 589
11-2 Propagation of Sound Waves 596
Speed of Sound 596
Types of Flow - The Mach Cone 600
11-3 Reference State: Local Isentropic Stagnation Properties 602
Local Isentopic Stagnation Properties for the Flow of an Ideal Gas 603
11-4 Critical Conditions 610
11-5 Summary 611
References 611
Problems 611
CHAPTER 12 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 617
12-1 Basic Equations for One-Dimensional Compressible Flow 617
12-2 Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas - Area Variation 621
Subsonic Flow, M < 1 623
Supersonic Flow, M > 1 623
Sonic Flow, M = 1 624
Reference Stagnation and Critical Conditions for Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas 625
Isentropic Flow in a Converging Nozzle 631
Isentropic Flow in a Converging-Diverging Nozzle 637
12-3 Flow in a Constant-Area Duct with Friction 643
Basic Equations for Adiabatic Flow 644
Adiabatic Flow: The Fanno Line 645
Fanno-Line Flow Functions for One-Dimensional Flow of an Ideal Gas 649
12-4 Frictionless Flow in a Constant-Area Duct with Heat Exchange 657
Basic Equations for Flow with Heat Exchange 658
The Rayleigh Line 659
Rayleigh-Line Flow Functions for One-Dimensional Flow of an Ideal Gas 664
12-5 Normal Shocks 669
Basic Equations for a Normal Shock 670
Normal Shock Flow Functions for One-Dimensional Flow of an Ideal Gas 672
12-6 Supersonic Channel Flow with Shocks 678
Flow in a Converging-Diverging Nozzle 678
12-7 Oblique Shocks and Expansion Waves 680
Oblique Shocks 680
Isentropic Expansion Waves 690
12-8 Summary 699
References 699
Problems 700
APPENDIX A FLUID PROPERTY DATA 716
APPENDIX B EQUATIONS OF MOTION IN CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES 730
APPENDIX C VIDEOS FOR FLUID MECHANICS 731
APPENDIX D SELECTED PERFORMANCE CURVES FOR PUMPS AND FANS 733
APPENDIX E FLOW FUNCTIONS FOR COMPUTATION OF COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 744
APPENDIX F ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL UNCERTAINTY 755
APPENDIX G SI UNITS, PREFIXES, AND CONVERSION FACTORS 762
Answers to Selected Problems 765
Index 779