1 GERMAN SENTENCE TYPES 1
1．0 Introductory 1
1．1 Minor sentence types 3
1．2 Major sentence types 5
1．3 Terminology 7
2 GERMAN CLAUSES 8
2．1 Definition 8
2．2 Major clause types 8
2．3 Usual finite verb form 8
2．4 Arrangements within the clause 9
2．41 What is a clause element？ 9
2．42 FV-2 clauses 12
2．5 Occurrence of subjunctives 13
2．51 Special subjunctive：SS-1-2 clauses 13
2．6 Imperative clauses 14
2．7 Order questions：FV-1 clauses 15
2．8 Dependent clauses：FV-L 17
2．81 Clause introducer：question word 17
2．82 Clause introducer：subordinating conjunction (SUB) 18
2．821 Clause introducer：relative pronoun (REL) 19
2．822 Clause introducer：ob＂whether＂ 19
2．823 Dependent clause without clause introducer 20
2．9 Negation 21
3 PHRASE STRUCTURE 22
3．0 Introductory 22
3．1 Subordinate structure：center ？ modifier 22
3．10(a) Attributive modifiers 22
3．11 The＂primary＂and the＂modal＂auxiliaries 27
3．12 Primary auxiliaries 28
3．121 Modification I 29
3．1211 Sequence of tenses 29
3．1212 Limitation to chronological past 29
3．1213 Uncertainty，unreality，improbability 30
3．122 Modification II：have + participle 31
3．1221 Co-occurrence of Modification I and II 33
3．1222 Modification III：be + -ing 33
3．123 Modification IV：be + participle 34
3．1231 werden + participle 34
3．1232 Passive clauses with dative object 35
3．1233 Other passive auxiliaries 36
3．13 Modal auxiliaries 36
3．131 Distribution of modals 37
3．14 Grammatical characteristics of auxiliaries 39
3．141 Negation 39
3．1411 Interrogation 39
3．1412 Stress and pitch signals 40
3．1413 Use as＂echo＂ 40
3．142 Role of do 40
3．10(b) Attributive phrases 41
3．10(c) Attributive clauses 42
3．2 Objective modifiers 42
3．21 Clause objects 42
3．22 Word objects 42
3．221 Object and case 42
3．222 Direct and indirect objects 43
3．223 Variety in object case 44
3．224 Verb + zu + dative 45
3．3 Coordinate structure：center ？ center 46
3．4 Coordinate structure：center = center (apposition) 47
3．5 Centerless structure：X ？ Y 47
3．51 Preposition ？ object 47
3．52 Subject ？ predicate 48
3．53 Subordinating conjunction ？ subordinating clause 48
4 PARTS OF SPEECH 49
4．0 Introductory 49
4．1 Form， function， markers 51
4．2 Content words and function words 52
4．3 Nouns 53
4．4 Verbs 56
4．5 Adjective-adverbs 57
4．51 Conflicts 57
4．6 Function words 60
4．61 Conjunctions 60
4．62 Prepositions 61
4．7 Adverbs 62
4．71 Groups of special adverbs 62
5 COMPULSORY GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES 64
5．0 Introductory 64
5．1 Substantives 65
5．11 Number 65
5．111 Pronouns 66
5．112 Determiners 66
5．113 Adjectives 66
5．12 Case 66
5．13 Grammatical gender 68
5．2 Verbs 69
5．21 Person-number 69
5．22 Infinitive 70
5．23 Past participle 70
5．24 Present participle 70
5．241 -ing forms as adjectives 71
5．242 -ing forms as nouns 71
5．243 -ing forms as verbals 72
5．25 Reflexive 72
6 COMPULSORY SEMANTIC CATEGORIES 75
6．0 Introductory 75
6．1 Compulsory semantic categories 77
6．11 Subjunctive 77
6．111 Unreal conditions 78
6．112 Contrary-to-fact statements in past tense 79
6．113 Omission of wenn；use of so，dann 80
6．114 Omission of wenn-clause 81
6．115 Other uses of the subjunctive 82
6．12 General and special subjunctive 83
6．121 Imperative use of special subjunctive 85
6．122 damit-clauses 85
6．123 Special subjunctive in spoken German 86
6．124 Significance of subjunctive 86
6．2 Progressive form 86
6．3 Past tenses 87
6．31 Differences in meaning of English past tenses 87
6．32 Differences in meaning of German past tenses 88
6．33 English present perfect and German present tense 89
6．34 Choice of auxiliary 89
6．35 lassen 89
6．4 Motion in reference to speaker 90
6．41 bringen and nehmen 91
6．5 Nominal gender distinctions 91
6．6 Location vs．destination 92
6．7 The second-person pronoun 94