Part One 1
1 IMAGES AND DIGITAL PROCESSING 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Elements of Digital Image Processing 2
1.3 Philosophical Considerations 7
1.4 Digital Image Processing in Practice 10
Problems 11
References 11
2 DIGITIZING IMAGES 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Characteristics of an Image Digitizer 14
2.3 Types of Image Digitizers 15
2.4 Image-Digitizing Components 16
2.5 Electronic Image Tube Cameras 21
2.6 Solid-State Cameras 24
2.7 Film Scanning 28
2.8 Summary of Important Points 33
Problems 34
Projects 35
References 35
3 DIGITAL IMAGE DISPLAY 37
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Display Characteristics 39
3.3 Volatile Displays 49
3.4 Permanent Displays 49
3.5 Summart of Important Points 52
Problems 53
Projects 53
References 53
4 IMAGE-PROCESSING SOFTWARE 55
4.1 Introduction 55
4.2 Image-Processing Systems 56
4.3 The User Interface 57
4.4 The Software Development Process 61
4.5 Summary of Important Points 68
Problems 68
Projects 69
References 69
5 THE GRAY-LEVEL HISTOGRAM 71
5.1 Introduction 71
5.2 Uses of the Histogram 75
5.3 Relationship Between Histogram and Image 77
5.4 Summary of Important Points 80
Problems 80
Projects 80
References 81
6 POINT OPERATIONS 83
6.1 Introduction 83
6.2 Point Operations and the Histogram 86
6.3 Applications of Point Operations 91
6.4 Summary of Important Points 96
Problems 97
Projects 99
7 ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS 101
7.1 Introduction 101
7.2 Algebraic Operations and the Histogram 102
7.3 Applications of Algebraic Operations 106
7.4 Summary of Important Points 112
Problems 112
Projects 113
8 GEOMETRIC OPERATIONS 115
8.1 Introduction 115
8.2 Gray-Level Interpolation 117
8.3 The Spatial Transformation 120
8.4 Applications of Geometric Operations 125
8.5 Summary of Important Points 137
Problems 137
Projects 139
References 140
Part Two 143
9 LINEAR SYSTEM THEORY 143
9.1 Introduction 143
9.2 Harmonic Signals and Complex Signal Analysis 145
9.3 The Convolution Operation 148
9.4 Some Useful Functions 158
9.5 Convolution Filtering 163
9.6 Conclusion 166
9.7 Summary of Important Points 167
Problems 167
Projects 168
References 169
10 THE FOURIER TRANSFORM 171
10.1Introduction 171
10.2Properties of the Fourier Transform 178
10.3Linear Systems and the Fourier Transform 186
10.4The Fourier Transform in Two Dimensions 193
10.5Correlation and the Power Spectrum 201
10.6Summary of Fourier Transform Properties 203
10.7Summary of Important Points 203
Problems 205
Projects 206
References 206
11 FILTER DESIGN 207
11.1Introduction 207
11.2Lowpass Filters 207
11.3Bandpass and Bandstop Filters 209
11.4High-Frequency Enhancement Filters 212
11.5Optimal Linear Filter Design 216
11.6 Order Statistic Filters 247
11.7Summary of Important Points 250
Problems 250
Projects 251
References 251
12 PROCESSING SAMPLED DATA 253
12.1Introduction 253
12.2Sampling and Interpolation 253
12.3Computing Spectra 262
12.4Aliasing 264
12.5Truncation 266
12.6Digital Processing 269
12.7Controlling Aliasing Error 273
12.8Digitally Implemented Linear Filtering 275
12.9Summary of Important Points 277
Problems 277
Projects 278
References 279
13 DISCRETE IMAGE TRANSFORMS 281
13.1Introduction 281
13.2Linear Transformations 282
13.3Basis Functions and Basis Images 285
13.4Sinusoidal Transforms 286
13.5Rectangular Wave Transforms 290
13.6Eigenvector-Based Transforms 294
13.7Transform Domain Filtering 299
13.8Summary of Important Points 300
Problems 301
Projects 301
References 301
14 WAVELET TRANSFORMS 303
14.1Introduction 303
14.2The Continuous Wavelet Transform 308
14.3The Wavelet Series Expansion 312
14.4The Discrete Wavelet Transform 314
14.5Wavelet Selection 343
14.6Applications 345
14.7Summary of Important Points 346
Problems 347
Projects 348
References 348
15 OPTICS AND SYSTEM ANALYSIS 351
15.1Introduction 351
15.2Optics and Imaging Systems 353
15.3Diffraction-Limited Optical Systems 357
15.4Imaging System Aberrations 366
15.5Imaging System Resolution 368
15.6 The Analysis of Complete Systems 371
15.7Examples 377
15.8Summary of Important Points 381
Problems 383
Projects 385
References 385
Part Three 387
16 IMAGE RESTORATION 387
16.1Introduction 387
16.2Classical Restoration Filters 388
16.3Linear Algebraic Restoration 393
16.4Restoration of Less Restricted Degradations 397
16.5Superresolution 403
16.6System Identification 408
16.7Noise Modeling 414
16.8Implementation 416
16.9Summary of Important Points 425
Problems 426
Projects 428
References 428
17 IMAGE COMPRESSION 431
17.1Introduction 431
17.2Lossless Compression Techniques 432
17.3Lossy Image Coding 435
17.4Transform Image Coding 438
17.5Image Compression Standards 441
17.6Summary of Important Points 442
Problems 443
Projects 443
References 444
18 PATTERN RECOGNITION：IMAGE SEGMENTATION 447
18.1 Introduction 447
18.2 The Image Segmentation Process 450
18.3 Image Segmentation by Thresholding 452
18.4 Gradient-Based Segmentation Methods 460
18.5 Edge Detection and Linking 464
18.6 Region Growing 468
18.7 Binary Image Processing 470
18.8 Segmented Image Structure 478
18.9 Summary of Important Points 482
Problems 482
Projects 483
References 483
19 PATTERN RECOGNITION：OBJECT MEASUREMENT 487
19.1 Introduction 487
19.2 Size Measurements 487
19.3 Shape Analysis 492
19.4 Texture Analysis 499
19.5 Curve and Surface Fitting 501
19.6 Summary of Important Points 507
Problems 507
Projects 509
References 509
20 PATTERN RECOGNITION：CLASSIFICATION AND ESTIMATION 513
20.1Introduction 513
20.2Classification 513
20.3Feature Selection 515
20.4Statistical Classification 518
20.5Neural Networks 527
20.6Proportion Estimation 538
20.7Summary of Important Points 542
Problems 543
Projects 544
References 544
21 COLOR AND MULTISPECTRAL IMAGE PROCESSING 547
21.1Introduction 547
21.2Multispectral Image Analysis 548
21.3Color Image Processing 548
21.4Summary of Important Points 561
Problems 561
Projects 562
References 562
22 THREE-DIMENSIONAL IMAGE PROCESSING 563
22.1Introduction 563
22.2Three-Dimensional Imaging 566
22.3Computerized Axial Tomography 582
22.4Stereometry 585
22.5Stereoscopic Image Display 590
22.6 Shaded Surface Display 593
22.7Summary of Important Points 599
Problems 599
Projects 600
References 601
A1 GLOSSARY OF IMAGE PROCESSING TERMS 603
A2 BIBLIOGRAPHY 611
A2.1 Books 611
A2.2 Research Papers 621
A3 MATHEMATICAL BACKGROUND 637
A3.1 Linear Algebra 637
A3.2 Set Theory 649
INDEX 651