PART 1 General Concepts 1
Chapter 1 Types of Applications of Measurement Instrumentation 3
1.1 Why Study Measurement Systems? 3
1.2 Classification of Types of Measurement Applications 5
1.3 Computer-Aided Machines and Processes 7
1.4 Conclusion 9
Problems 10
Bibliography 11
Chapter 2 Generalized Configurations and Functional Descriptions of Measuring Instruments 13
2.1 Functional Elements of an Instrument 13
2.2 Active and Passive Transducers 18
2.3 Analog and Digital Modes of Operation 19
2.4 Null and Deflection Methods 21
2.5 Input-Output Configuration of Instruments and Measurement Systems 22
Methods of Correction for Interfering and Modifying Inputs 26
2.6 Conclusion 38
Problems 39
Chapter 3 Generalized Performance Characteristics of Instruments 40
3.1 Introduction 40
3.2 Static Characteristics and Static Calibration 41
Meaning of Static Calibration 41
Measured Value versus True Value 43
Some Basic Statistics 45
Least-Squares Calibration Curves 54
Calibration Accuracy versus Installed Accuracy 61
Combination of Component Errors in Overall System-Accuracy Calculations 67
Theory Validation by Experimental Testing 72
Effect of Measurement Error on Quality-Control Decisions in Manufacturing 74
Static Sensitivity 76
Computer-Aided Calibration and Measurement: Multiple Regression 78
Linearity 85
Threshold, Noise Floor, Resolution, Hysteresis, and Dead Space 86
Scale Readability 91
Span 91
Generalized Static Stiffness and Input Impedance: Loading Effects 91
Concluding Remarks on Static Characteristics 103
3.3 Dynamic Characteristics 103
Generalized Mathematical Model of Measurement System 103
Digital Simulation Methods for Dynamic Response Analysis 106
Operational Transfer Function 106
Sinusoidal Transfer Function 107
Zero-Order Instrument 109
First-Order Instrument 111
Step Response of First-Order Instruments 114
Ramp Response of First-Order Instruments 121
Frequency Response of First-Order Instruments 123
Impulse Response of First-Order Instruments 128
Second-Order Instrument 131
Step Response of Second-Order Instruments 133
Terminated-Ramp Response of Second-Order Instruments 135
Ramp Response of Second-Order Instruments 137
Frequency Response of Second-Order Instruments 137
Impulse Response of Second-Order Instruments 139
Dead-Time Elements 141
Logarithmic Plotting of Frequency-Response Curves 143
Response of a General Form of Instrument to a Periodic Input 149
Response of a General Form of Instrument to a Transient Input 157
Frequency Spectra of Amplitude-Modulated Signals 167
Characteristics of Random Signals 178
Requirements on Instrument Transfer Function to Ensure Accurate Measurement 194
Sensor Selection Using Computer Simulation 200
Numerical Correction of Dynamic Data 202
Experimental Determination of Measurement-System Parameters 206
Loading Effects under Dynamic Conditions 211
Problems 214
Bibliography 221
PART 2 Measuring Devices 223
Chapter 4 Motion and Dimensional Measurement 225
4.1 Introduction 225
4.2 Fundamental Standards 225
4.3 Relative Displacement: Translational and Rotational 228
Calibration 228
Resistive Potentiometers 231
Resistance Strain Gage 240
Differential Transformers 252
Synchros and Resolvers 262
Variable-Inductance and Variable-Reluctance Pickups 267
Eddy-Current Noncontacting Transducers 271
Capacitance Pickups 273
Piezoelectric Transducers 284
Electro-Optical Devices 292
Photographic and Electronic-Imaging Techniques 312
Photoelastic, Brittle-Coating, and Moir Fringe Stress-Analysis Techniques 319
Displacement-to-Pressure (Nozzle-Flapper) Transducer 321
Digital Displacement Transducers (Translational and Rotary Encoders) 327
Ultrasonic Transducers 335
4.4 Relative Velocity: Translational and Rotational 337
Calibration 337
Velocity by Electrical Differentiation of Displacement Voltage Signals 339
Average Velocity from Measured ??x and ??t 339
Mechanical Flyball Angular-Velocity Sensor 342
Mechanical Revolution Counters and Timers 342
Tachometer Encoder Methods 343
Laser-Based Methods 344
Radar (Microwave) Speed Sensors 345
Stroboscopic Methods 346
Translational-Velocity Transducers (Moving-Coil and Moving-Magnet Pickups) 347
DC Tachometer Generators for Rotary-Velocity Measurement 348
AC Tachometer Generators for Rotary-Velocity Measurement 349
Eddy-Current Drag-Cup Tachometer 349
4.5 Relative-Acceleration Measurements 351
4.6 Seismic- (Absolute-) Displacement Pickups 351
4.7 Seismic- (Absolute-) Velocity Pickups 356
4.8 Seismic- (Absolute-) Acceleration Pickups (Accelerometers) 357
Deflection-Type Accelerometers 358
Null-Balance- (Servo-) Type Accelerometers 369
Accelerometers for Inertial Navigation 372
Mechanical Loading of Accelerometers on the Test Object 373
Laser Doppler Vibrometers 373
4.9 Calibration of Vibration Pickups 375
4.10 Jerk Pickups 378
4.11 Pendulous (Gravity-Referenced) Angular-Displacement Sensors 379
4.12 Gyroscopic (Absolute) Angular-Displacement and Velocity Sensors 383
4.13 Coordinate-Measuring Machines 398
4.14 Surface-Finish Measurement 406
4.15 Machine Vision 413
4.16 The Global-Positioning System (GPS) 421
Problems 423
Bibliography 431
Chapter 5 Force, Torque, and Shaft Power Measurement 432
5.1 Standards and Calibration 432
5.2 Basic Methods of Force Measurement 434
5.3 Characteristics of Elastic Force Transducers 441
Bonded-Strain-Gage Transducers 446
Differential-Transformer Transducers 452
Piezoelectric Transducers 452
Variable-Reluctance/FM-Oscillator Digital Systems 455
Loading Effects 456
5.4 Resolution of Vector Forces and Moments into Rectangular Components 457
5.5 Torque Measurement on Rotating Shafts 464
5.6 Shaft Power Measurement (Dynamometers) 470
5.7 Gyroscopic Force and Torque Measurement 474
5.8 Vibrating-Wire Force Transducers 474
Problems 476
Bibliography 480
Chapter 6 Pressure and Sound Measurement 481
6.1 Standards and Calibration 481
6.2 Basic Methods of Pressure Measurement 482
6.3 Deadweight Gages and Manometers 482
Manometer Dynamics 490
6.4 Elastic Transducers 500
6.5 Vibrating-Cylinder and Other Resonant Transducers 515
6.6 Dynamic Effects of Volumes and Connecting Tubing 517
Liquid Systems Heavily Damped, and Slow-Acting 518
Liquid Systems Moderately Damped, and Fast-Acting 520
Gas Systems with Tube Volume a Small Fraction of Chamber Volume 524
Gas Systems with Tube Volume Comparable to Chamber Volume 526
The Infinite Line-Pressure Probe 527
Conclusion 528
6.7 Dynamic Testing of Pressure-Measuring Systems 528
6.8 High-Pressure Measurement 535
6.9 Low-Pressure (Vacuum) Measurement 536
Diaphragm Gages 536
McLeod Gage 538
Knudsen Gage 540
Momentum-Transfer (Viscosity) Gages 541
Thermal-Conductivity Gages 541
Ionization Gages 545
Dual-Gage Technique 547
6.10 Sound Measurement 547
Sound-Level Meter 548
Microphones 551
Pressure Response of a Capacitor Microphone 554
Acoustic Intensity 565
Acoustic Emission 568
6.11 Pressure-Signal Multiplexing Systems 569
6.12 Special Topics 571
Pressure Distribution 571
Overpressure Protection for Gages and Transducers 573
Problems 574
Bibliography 576
Chapter 7 Flow Measurement 578
7.1 Local Flow Velocity, Magnitude and Direction 578
Flow Visualization 578
Velocity Magnitude from Pitot-Static Tube 582
Velocity Direction from Yaw Tube, Pivoted Vane, and Servoed Sphere 590
Dynamic Wind-Vector Indicator 594
Hot- Wire and Hot-Film Anemometers 596
Hot-Film Shock-Tube Velocity Sensors 611
Laser Doppler Anemometer 611
7.2 Gross Volume Flow Rate 615
Calibration and Standards 616
Constant-Area, Variable-Pressure-Drop Meters ( "Obstruction " Meters) 620
Averaging Pitot Tubes 632
Constant-Pressure-Drop, Variable-Area Meters (Rotameters) 633
Turbine Meters 635
Positive-Displacement Meters 640
Metering Pumps 642
Electromagnetic Flowmeters 643
Drag-Force Flowmeters 648
Ultrasonic Flowmeters 649
Vortex-Shedding Flowmeters 655
Miscellaneous Topics 657
7.2 Gross Mass Flow Rate 660
Volume Flowmeter Plus Density Measurement 660
Direct Mass Flowmeters 664
Problems 672
Bibliography 675
Chapter 8 Temperature and Heat-Flux Measurement 677
8.1 Standards and Calibration 677
8.2 Thermal-Expansion Methods 685
Bimetallic Thermometers 685
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers 687
Pressure Thermometers 688
8.3 Thermoelectric Sensors (Thermocouples) 691
Common Thermocouples 699
Reference-Junction Considerations 701
Special Materials, Configurations, and Techniques 704
8.4 Electrical-Resistance Sensors 713
Conductive Sensors(Resistance Thermometers) 713
Bulk Semiconductor Sensors (Thermistors) 719
8.5 Junction Semiconductor Sensors 723
8.6 Digital Thermometers 727
8.7 Radiation Methods 727
Radiation Fundamentals 728
Radiation Detectors: Thermal and Photon 734
Unchopped (DC) Broadband Radiation Thermometers 746
Chopped (AC) Broadband Radiation Thermometers 750
Chopped (AC) Selective-Band (Photon) Radiation Thermometers 752
Automatic Null-Balance Radiation Thermometers 756
Monochromatic-Brightness Radiation Thermometers (Optical Pyrometers) 758
Two-Color Radiation Thermometers 760
Blackbody-Tipped Fiber-Optic Radiation Thermometer 760
Fluoroptic Temperature Measurement 763
Infrared Imaging Systems 764
8.8 Temperature-Measuring Problems in Flowing Fluids 767
Conduction Error 767
Radiation Error 770
Velocity Effects 774
8.9 Dynamic Response of Temperature Sensors 777
Dynamic Compensation of Temperature Sensors 781
8.10 Heat-Flux Sensors 782
Slug-Type (Calorimeter) Sensors 782
Steady-State or Asymptotic Sensors (Gardon Gage) 786
Application Considerations 788
Problems 789
Bibliography 791
Chapter 9 Miscellaneous Measurements 792
9.1 Time, Frequency, and Phase-Angle Measurement 792
9.2 Liquid Level 799
9.3 Humidity 806
9.4 Chemical Composition 809
9.5 Current and Power Measurement 810
9.6 Using "Observers" to Measure Inaccessible Variables in a Physical System 814
9.7 Sensor Fusion (Complementary Filtering) 826
Absolute Angle Measurement 829
Problems 833
Bibliography 834
PART 3 Manipulation, Transmission, and Recording of Data 835
Chapter 10 Manipulating, Computing, and Compensating Devices 837
10.1 Bridge Circuits 837
10.2 Amplifiers 843
Operational Amplifiers 844
Instrumentation Amplifiers 851
Transconductance and Transimpedance Amplifiers 853
Noise Problems, Shielding,and Grounding 855
Chopper, Chopper-Stabilized, and Carrier Amplifiers 858
Charge Amplifiers and Impedance Converters 860
Concluding Remarks 863
10.3 Filters 864
Low-Pass Filters 864
High-Pass Filters 870
Bandpass Filters 870
Band-Rejection Filters 870
Digital Filters 872
A Hydraulic Bandpass Filter for an Oceanographic Transducer 875
Mechanical Filters for Accelerometers 876
Filtering by Statistical Averaging 879
10.4 Integration and Differentiation 879
Integration 879
Differentiation 881
10.5 Dynamic Compensation 889
10.6 Positioning Systems 894
10.7 Addition and Subtraction 904
10.8 Multiplication and Division 904
10.9 Function Generation and Linearization 907
10.10 Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation 912
10.11 Voltage-to-Frequency and Frequency-to-Voltage Converters 913
10.12 Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Converters; Sample/Hold Amplifiers 913
10.13 Signal and System Analyzers (Spectrum Analyzers) 923
Problems 927
Bibliography 930
Chapter 11 Data Transmission and Instrument Connectivity 931
11.1 Cable Transmission of Analog Voltage and Current Signals 931
11.2 Cable Transmission of Digital Data 935
11.3 Fiber-Optic Data Transmission 936
11.4 Radio Telemetry 937
11.5 Pneumatic Transmission 943
11.6 Synchro Position Repeater Systems 944
11.7 Slip Rings and Rotary Transformers 946
11.8 Instrument Connectivity 948
11.9 Data Storage with Delayed Playback (An Alternative to Data Transmission) 952
Problems 952
Bibliography 953
Chapter 12 Voltage-Indicating and -Recording Devices 954
12.1 Standards and Calibration 954
12.2 Analog Voltmeters and Potentiometers 954
12.3 Digital Voltmeters and Multimeters 961
12.4 Electromechanical Servotype X T and XY Recorders 963
12.5 Thermal-Array Recorders and Data Acquisition Systems 968
12.6 Analog and Digital Cathode-Ray Oscilloscopes/Displays and Liquid-Crystal Flat-Panel Displays 968
12.7 Virtual Instruments 974
12.8 Magnetic Tape and Disk Recorders/Reproducers 974
Bibliography 980
Chapter 13 Data-Acquisition Systems for Personal Computers 981
13.1 Essential Features of Data-Acquisition Boards 982
13.2 The DASYLAB Data-Acquisition and -Processing Software 983
The DASYLAB Functional Modules 984
List and Brief Description of the Functional Modules 985
13.3 DASYLAB Simulation Example Number One 988
Simulating Sensor Signals and Recording Them versus Time 988
Stopping an Experiment at a Selected Time 991
Chart Recorder Options 991
Producing Tables or Lists 991
Analog and Digital Meters 992
Some Simple Data-Processing Operations 992
Integration and Differentiation 993
13.4 DASYLAB Simulation Example Number Two 993
Running the Demonstration 997
13.5 DASYLAB Simulation Example Number Three 1000
Running the Demonstration 1003
13.6 A Simple Real-World Experiment Using DASYLAB 1005