1 Introduction 1
1.1 Preliminary remarks 1
1.2 Some legal basics 4
1.2.1 Sources of international law 4
1.2.2 How international law changes 7
1.2.3 The legal framework as an interconnected whole 9
1.3 Structure of the book 10
1.4 Overview of chapters 10
PART ONE 17
2 'Terrorism' in international law 17
2.1 Developments towards a comprehensive definition of international terrorism 18
2.1.1 Pre-September 11: historical developments 18
2.1.2 Post September 11: a global convention? 20
2.1.3 Specific international conventions 23
2.1.4 Terrorism in armed conflict 25
2.1.5 Regional conventions 26
2.1.6 National measures 30
2.2 Do we know it when we see it? Defining terrorism and customary law 31
2.2.1 Identifying elements of a definition of terrorism from international instruments 32
2.2.2 Other international practice: General Assembly, Security Council and criminal tribunals 37
2.2.3 Meeting the legality threshold: preliminary conclusions on customary international law? 40
2.3 Filling the gap? Terrorism and other international legal norms 41
2.4 Conclusion 44
3International responsibility and terrorism 47
3.1 State responsibility in international law 48
3.1.1 Responsibility of a state for acts of terrorism 48
3.1.2 Responsibility for breach of obligations in the fight against terrorism 55
3.1.3 Consequences of international responsibility for acts of terrorism or for breach of obligations relating to the fight against terrorism 58
3.2 Responsibility of non-state actors in international law 61
3.2.1 Criminal law 62
3.2.2 International humanitarian law 63
3.2.3 Human rights law? 64
3.3 Conclusion 69
PART TWO 73
4 Criminal justice 73
4A THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK 73
4A.1 Crimes, principles of criminal law and jurisdiction 76
4A.1.1 Crimes under international and national law 76
4A.1.2 Relevant principles of criminal law 93
4A.1.3 Jurisdiction to prosecute 99
4A.2 Implementing justice: international cooperation and enforcement 106
4A.2.1 Extradition 107
4A.2.2 Mutual assistance 114
4A.2.3 Cooperation and the Security Council 116
4B CRIMINAL JUSTICE IN PRACTICE POST SEPTEMBER 11 117
4B.1 Prosecutions in practice post 9/11 119
4B.1.1 Paucity of prosecutions 119
4B.1.2 International v. national models of justice post 9/11 124
4B.2 Developments in law and practice on cooperation 131
4B.2.1 International standards and procedures 131
4B.2.2 Streamlining the extradition process? Developments in extradition procedure 134
4B.2.3 Inter-state cooperation in practice post 9/11 138
4B.3 Conclusion 142
5 Peaceful resolution of disputes and use of force 144
5A THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK 144
5A.1 The obligation to resolve international disputes by peaceful means 144
5A.2 The use of force in international law: general rule and exceptions 146
5A.2.1 Self defence 149
5A.2.2 Security Council: maintenance of international peace and security 168
5A.3 Other justifications for the use of force? 178
5A.3.1 Humanitarian intervention 179
5A.3.2 Pro-democratic intervention 183
5A.3.3 Self help: breakdown in international enforcement? 184
5B THE USE OF FORCE POST SEPTEMBER 11 186
5B.1 Afghanistan 186
5B.1.1 Key questions arising 188
5B.2 Iraq 197
5B.2.1 Key questions arising 199
5B.3 United States National Security Strategy 209
5B.3.1 Expanding self defence? 209
5B.3.2 Internationalism, unilateralism or exceptionalism? 211
5B.4 Conclusion 212
PART THREE 217
6 International humanitarian law 217
6A THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK 217
6A.1 When and where IHL applies 218
6A.1.1 Armed conflict: international or non-international 218
6A.1.2 Temporal scope of IHL 222
6A.1.3 Territorial scope of IHL 223
6A.2 Applicable law 223
6A.3 Specific aspects of IHL 228
6A.3.1 Targeting: the principle of distinction and proportionality 228
6A.3.2 Methods and means of warfare: unnecessary suffering 236
6A.3.3 Humanitarian protections 239
6A.3.4 Occupiers' obligations 244
6A.3.5 Responsibility and ensuring compliance under IHL 245
6BINTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW AND THE 'WAR ON TERROR' 249
6B.1 Armed conflicts since 9/11 250
6B.1.1 Armed conflict and 'terrorist groups of global reach' 250
6B.1.2 The Afghan conflict, its nature, beginning and end 255
6B.1.3 The conflict in Iraq and obligations of occupying forces 258
6B.2 The Afghan conflict and particular issues of IHL compliance 259
6B.2.1 Targeting 259
6B.2.2 Methods and means: cluster bombs in Afghanistan 264
6B.2.3 Humanitarian protection of prisoners: executions,torture and inhumane treatment 266
6B.2.4 Transparency, inquiry and onus of proof? 270
6B.3 Conclusion 271
7 International human rights law 274
7A THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK 274
7A.1 Sources and mechanisms of international human rights law 275
7A.2 Scope of application of human rights obligations 282
7A.2.1 Territorial scope of human rights obligations-'the jurisdiction question' 282
7A.2.2 Personal scope of human rights obligations: irrelevance of nationality 289
7A.3BHuman rights in crisis or emergency: accommodating security imperatives 290
7A.3.1 Lawful limitations: treaty 'claw back' clauses 291
7A.3.2 Temporary suspension: derogation clauses 292
7A.3.3 Customary law and emergency 297
7A.3.4 Harmony in conflict? The relationship between IHL and human rights law 298
7A.4 Human rights obligations and terrorism 301
7A.4.1 Protecting human security: positive human rights obligations 301
7A.4.2 State responsibility and human rights violations 305
7A.4.3 Specific rights protected and counter-terrorism 307
7A.5 Conclusion 331
7B HUMAN RIGHTS AND SECURITY POST SEPTEMBER 11 332
7B.1 Executing the 'war on terror' extra-territorially 332
7B.1.1 Arrest and detention of prisoners abroad? 333
7B.1.2 Aerial bombardment in Afghanistan or Iraq? 334
7B.1.3 Targeted killings? 336
7B.1.4 Clarifying and enforcing extra-territorial human rights law? 337
7B.2 The'war'and human rights 339
7B.2.1 The Yemen attack: armed conflict or assassination? 340
7B.3 Derogation and emergency post 9/11 344
7B.3.1 An emergency threatening the life of the nation? 345
7B.3.2 A valid process of derogation? 346
7B.3.3 Linkage between measures taken and the emergency? 347
7B.4 'Terrorism' and the legality principle 348
7B.4.1 Terrorism, criminal responsibility and nullum crimen sine lege 350
7B.4.2 Terrorism, penalties and nulla poena sine lege 352
7B.5 Torture and inhuman treatment: Abu Ghraib and beyond 353
7B.6 Indefinite detention 355
7B.7 Asylum and refugee exclusion 357
7B.8 Cooperation in criminal matters and human rights post 9/11 358
7B.9 'Proscribing dissent' - expression, association, assembly 364
7B.10 Profiling, protecting and anti-discrimination 366
7B.11 The role of the judiciary as guardian of human rights post 9/11? 368
7B.11.1 'Listing' proscribed organisations 368
7B.11.2 International 'cooperation': undermining the judicial function 370
7B.11.3 Independence and impartiality impaired: 'special' courts 370
7B.12 Accountability 371
7B.13 Conclusion 373
8Case study-Guantanamo Bay detentions under international human rights and humanitarian law 379
8A GUANTANAMO BAY AND ITS DETAINEES: THE BASIC FACTS 380
8A.1.1 Treatment of detainees in Guantanamo Bay 382
8A.1.2 Seeking justice in US and other courts 385
8A.1.3 Overview of military procedures governing detention 387
8A.1.4 Trial by military commission 388
8B APPLICATION OF HUMANITARIAN AND HUMAN RIGHTS LAW TO DETAINEES IN GUANTANAMO BAY 390
8B.2.1 The framework: international humanitarian law 391
8B.2.2 The framework: international human rights law 392
8B.3 Categories of detainees 396
8B.3.1 Entitlement to POW status 398
8B.3.2 'Civilian' detainees 401
8B.3.3 Persons not covered by GC III or GC IV? 403
8B.4 Specific rights of detainees under IHL and IHRL 404
8B.4.1 Existence of a lawful basis for detention 404
8B.4.2 Status determinations 407
8B.4.3 Information on reasons for arrest and detention 411
8B.4.4 Judicial oversight of detention 413
8B.4.5 Prosecution-fair trial rights 417
8B.5 Standards of protection compared: implications of POW status? 428
8B.5.1 Rights regarding interrogation 428
8B.5.2 Indefinite detention-repatriation 429
8C RESPONDING TO GUANTANAMO 430
8C.6 The obligations of third states 430
8C.7 The international response to the Guantanamo detentions 434
8C.8 Guantanamo Bay: implications and potential repercussions? 437
8C.9 Conclusion 441
9 Conclusion 443
9.1 September 11 as opportunity and the 'war on terror' response 443
9.2 The legal framework 445
9.3 The 'war on terror' and international legality: some essential characteristics 447
9.4 Early reactions and key challenges: is the pendulum swinging and where might it stop? 449
Bibliography 453
Index 465