1.Fundamentals 1
1.1 Need for Turbine Blade Cooling 1
1.1.1 Recent Development in Aircraft Engines 1
1.1.2 Recent Development in Land-Based Gas Turbines 3
1.2 Turbine-Cooling Technology 5
1.2.1 Concept of Turbine Blade Cooling 5
1.2.2 Typical Turbine-Cooling System 7
1.3 Turbine Heat Transfer and Cooling Issues 14
1.3.1 Turbine Blade Heat Transfer 14
1.3.2 Turbine Blade Internal Cooling 18
1.3.3 Turbine Blade Film Cooling 21
1.3.4 Thermal Barrier Coating and Heat Transfer 21
1.4 Structure of the Book 22
1.5 Review Articles and Book Chapters on Turbine Cooling and Heat Transfer 23
1.6 New Information from 2000 to 2010 24
1.6.1 ASME Turbo Expo Conference CDs 25
1.6.2 Book Chapters and Review Articles 25
1.6.3 Structure of the Revised Book 26
References 26
2.Turbine Heat Transfer 31
2.1 Introduction 31
2.1.1 Combustor Outlet Velocity and Temperature Profiles 31
2.2 Turbine-Stage Heat Transfer 35
2.2.1 Introduction 35
2.2.2 Real Engine Turbine Stage 35
2.2.3 Simulated Turbine Stage 43
2.2.4 Time-Resolved Heat-Transfer Measurements on a Rotor Blade 49
2.3 Cascade Vane Heat-Transfer Experiments 52
2.3.1 Introduction 52
2.3.2 Effect of Exit Mach Number and Reynolds Number 53
2.3.3 Effect of Free-Stream Turbulence 57
2.3.4 Effect of Surface Roughness 58
2.3.5 Annular Cascade Vane Heat Transfer 62
2.4 Cascade Blade Heat Transfer 66
2.4.1 Introduction 66
2.4.2 Unsteady Wake-Simulation Experiments 67
2.4.3 Wake-Affected Heat-Transfer Predictions 74
2.4.4 Combined Effects of Unsteady Wake and Free-Stream Turbulence 78
2.5 Airfoil Endwall Heat Transfer 83
2.5.1 Introduction 83
2.5.2 Description of the Flow Field 83
2.5.3 Endwall Heat Transfer 86
2.5.4 Near-Endwall Heat Transfer 88
2.5.5 Engine Condition Experiments 90
2.5.6 Effect of Surface Roughness 92
2.6 Turbine Rotor Blade Tip Heat Transfer 94
2.6.1 Introduction 94
2.6.2 Blade Tip Region Flow Field and Heat Transfer 95
2.6.3 Flat-Blade Tip Heat Transfer 98
2.6.4 Squealer- or Grooved-Blade-Tip Heat Transfer 99
2.7 Leading-Edge Region Heat Transfer 106
2.7.1 Introduction 106
2.7.2 Effect of Free-Stream Turbulence 108
2.7.3 Effect of Leading-Edge Shape 113
2.7.4 Effect of Unsteady Wake 114
2.8 Flat-Surface Heat Transfer 118
2.8.1 Introduction 118
2.8.2 Effect of Free-Stream Turbulence 118
2.8.3 Effect of Pressure Gradient 123
2.8.4 Effect of Streamwise Curvature 124
2.8.5 Surface Roughness Effects 126
2.9 New Information from 2000 to 2010 128
2.9.1 Endwall Heat Transfer 128
2.9.1.1 Endwall Contouring 128
2.9.1.2 Leading-Edge Modifications to Reduce Secondary Flows 130
2.9.1.3 Endwall Heat-Transfer Measurements 131
2.9.2 Turbine Tip and Casing Heat Transfer 132
2.9.3 Vane-Blade Interactions 136
2.9.3.1 Cascade Studies 137
2.9.4 Deposition and Roughness Effects 138
2.9.5 Combustor-Turbine Effects 139
2.9.6 Transition-Induced Effects and Modeling 141
2.10 Closure 143
References 144
3.Turbine Film Cooling 159
3.1 Introduction 159
3.1.1 Fundamentals of Film Cooling 159
3.2 Film Cooling on Rotating Turbine Blades 162
3.3 Film Cooling on Cascade Vane Simulations 169
3.3.1 Introduction 169
3.3.2 Effect of Film Cooling 171
3.3.3 Effect of Free-Stream Turbulence 180
3.4 Film Cooling on Cascade Blade Simulations 181
3.4.1 Introduction 181
3.4.2 Effect of Film Cooling 182
3.4.3 Effect of Free-Stream Turbulence 185
3.4.4 Effect of Unsteady Wake 186
3.4.5 Combined Effect of Free-Stream Turbulence and Unsteady Wakes 193
3.5 Film Cooling on Airfoil Endwalls 193
3.5.1 Introduction 193
3.5.2 Low-Speed Simulation Experiments 193
3.5.3 Engine Condition Experiments 200
3.5.4 Near-Endwall Film Cooling 201
3.6 Turbine Blade Tip Film Cooling 204
3.6.1 Introduction 204
3.6.2 Heat-Transfer Coefficient 205
3.6.3 Film Effectiveness 208
3.7 Leading-Edge Region Film Cooling 210
3.7.1 Introduction 210
3.7.2 Effect of Coolant-to-Mainstream Blowing Ratio 211
3.7.3 Effect of Free-Stream Turbulence 213
3.7.4 Effect of Unsteady Wake 218
3.7.5 Effect of Coolant-to-Mainstream Density Ratio 218
3.7.6 Effect of Film Hole Geometry 224
3.7.7 Effect of Leading-Edge Shape 225
3.8 Flat-Surface Film Cooling 226
3.8.1 Introduction 226
3.8.2 Film-Cooled，Heat-Transfer Coefficient 227
3.8.2.1 Effect of Blowing Ratio 228
3.8.2.2 Effect of Coolant-to-Mainstream Density Ratio 229
3.8.2.3 Effect of Mainstream Acceleration 231
3.8.2.4 Effect of Hole Geometry 233
3.8.3 Film-Cooling Effectiveness 239
3.8.3.1 Effect of Blowing Ratio 241
3.8.3.2 Effect of Coolant-to-Mainstream Density Ratio 242
3.8.3.3 Film Effectiveness Correlations 244
3.8.3.4 Effect of Streamwise Curvature and Pressure Gradient 250
3.8.3.5 Effect of High Free-Stream Turbulence 255
3.8.3.6 Effect of Film Hole Geometry 257
3.8.3.7 Effect of Coolant Supply Geometry 260
3.8.3.8 Effect of Surface Roughness 262
3.8.3.9 Effect of Gap Leakage 262
3.8.3.10 Effect of Bulk Flow Pulsations 267
3.8.3.11 Full-Coverage Film Cooling 267
3.9 Discharge Coefficients of Turbine Cooling Holes 269
3.10 Film-Cooling Effects on Aerodynamic Losses 272
3.11 New Information from 2000 to 2010 276
3.11.1 Film-Cooling-Hole Geometry 276
3.11.1.1 Effect of Cooling-Hole Exit Shape and Geometry 276
3.11.1.2 Trenching of Holes 281
3.11.1.3 Deposition and Blockage Effects on Hole Exits 288
3.11.2 Endwall Film Cooling 289
3.11.3 Turbine Blade Tip Film Cooling 299
3.11.4 Turbine Trailing Edge Film Cooling 308
3.11.5 Airfoil Film Cooling 310
3.11.5.1 Vane Film Cooling 310
3.11.5.2 Blade Film Cooling 311
3.11.5.3 Effect of Shocks 311
3.11.5.4 Effect of Superposition on Film Effectiveness 312
3.11.6 Novel Film-Cooling Designs 313
3.12 Closure 315
References 315
4.Turbine Internal Cooling 329
4.1 Jet Impingement Cooling 329
4.1.1 Introduction 329
4.1.2 Heat-Transfer Enhancement by a Single Jet 329
4.1.2.1 Effect of Jet-to-Target-Plate Spacing 332
4.1.2.2 Correlation for Single Jet Impingement Heat Transfer 333
4.1.2.3 Effectiveness of Impinging Jets 334
4.1.2.4 Comparison of Circular to Slot Jets 335
4.1.3 Impingement Heat Transfer in the Midchord Region by Jet Array 336
4.1.3.1 Jets with Large Jet-to-Jet Spacing 337
4.1.3.2 Effect of Wall-to-Jet-Array Spacing 337
4.1.3.3 Cross-Flow Effect and Heat-Transfer Correlation 339
4.1.3.4 Effect of Initial Cross-Flow 345
4.1.3.5 Effect of Cross-Flow Direction on Impingement Heat Transfer 346
4.1.3.6 Effect of Coolant Extraction on Impingement Heat Transfer 350
4.1.3.7 Effect of Inclined Jets on Heat Transfer 354
4.1.4 Impingement Cooling of the Leading Edge 355
4.1.4.1 Impingement on a Curved Surface 355
4.1.4.2 Impingement Heat Transfer in the Leading Edge 356
4.2 Rib-Turbulated Cooling 363
4.2.1 Introduction 363
4.2.1.1 Typical Test Facility 366
4.2.2 Effects of Rib Layouts and Flow Parameters on Ribbed-Channel Heat Transfer 368
4.2.2.1 Effect of Rib Spacing on the Ribbed and Adjacent Smooth Sidewalls 369
4.2.2.2 Angled Ribs 370
4.2.2.3 Effect of Channel Aspect Ratio with Angled Ribs 371
4.2.2.4 Comparison of Different Angled Ribs 372
4.2.3 Heat-Transfer Coefficient and Friction Factor Correlation 375
4.2.4 High-Performance Ribs 380
4.2.4.1 V-Shaped Rib 380
4.2.4.2 V-Shaped Broken Rib 383
4.2.4.3 Wedge- and Delta-Shaped Rib 384
4.2.5 Effect of Surface-Heating Condition 387
4.2.6 Nonrectangular Cross-Section Channels 390
4.2.7 Effect of High Blockage-Ratio Ribs 403
4.2.8 Effect of Rib Profile 406
4.2.9 Effect of Number of Ribbed Walls 413
4.2.10 Effect of a 180° Sharp Turn 421
4.2.11 Detailed Heat-Transfer Coefficient Measurements in a Ribbed Channel 430
4.2.12 Effect of Film-Cooling Hole on Ribbed-Channel Heat Transfer 437
4.3 Pin-Fin Cooling 442
4.3.1 Introduction 442
4.3.2 Flow and Heat-Transfer Analysis with Single Pin 446
4.3.3 Pin Array and Correlation 451
4.3.4 Effect of Pin Shape on Heat Transfer 459
4.3.5 Effect of Nonuniform Array and Flow Convergence 464
4.3.6 Effect of Skewed Pin Array 467
4.3.7 Partial Pin Arrangements 470
4.3.8 Effect of Turning Flow 472
4.3.9 Pin-Fin Cooling with Ejection 472
4.3.10 Effect of Missing Pin on Heat-Transfer Coefficient 478
4.4 Compound and New Cooling Techniques 479
4.4.1 Introduction 479
4.4.2 Impingement on Ribbed Walls 479
4.4.3 Impingement on Pinned and Dimpled Walls 484
4.4.4 Combined Effect of Ribbed Wall with Grooves 489
4.4.5 Combined Effect of Ribbed Wall with Pins and Impingement Inlet Conditions 491
4.4.6 Combined Effect of Swirl Flow and Ribs 495
4.4.7 Impingement Heat Transfer with Perforated Baffles 500
4.4.8 Combined Effect of Swirl and Impingement 504
4.4.9 Concept of Heat Pipe for Turbine Cooling 505
4.4.10 New Cooling Concepts 509
4.5 New Information from 2000 to 2010 510
4.5.1 Rib Turbulated Cooling 510
4.5.2 Impingement Cooling on Rough Surface 514
4.5.3 Trailing Edge Cooling 517
4.5.4 Dimpled and Pin-Finned Channels 518
4.5.5 Combustor Liner Cooling and Effusion Cooling 519
4.5.6 Innovative Cooling Approaches and Methods 523
References 525
5.Turbine Internal Cooling with Rotation 537
5.1 Rotational Effects on Cooling 537
5.2 Smooth-Wall Coolant Passage 538
5.2.1 Effect of Rotation on Flow Field 538
5.2.2 Effect of Rotation on Heat Transfer 545
5.2.2.1 Effect of Rotation Number 546
5.2.2.2 Effect of Density Ratio 547
5.2.2.3 Combined Effects of Rotation Number and Density Ratio 548
5.2.2.4 Effect of Surface-Heating Condition 550
5.2.2.5 Effect of Rotation Number and Wall-Heating Condition 554
5.3 Heat Transfer in a Rib-Turbulated Rotating Coolant Passage 556
5.3.1 Effect of Rotation on Rib-Turbulated Flow 556
5.3.2 Effect of Rotation on Heat Transfer in Channels with 90° Ribs 559
5.3.2.1 Effect of Rotation Number 560
5.3.2.2 Effect of Wall-Heating Condition 563
5.3.3 Effect of Rotation on Heat Transfer for Channels with Angled （Skewed） Ribs 565
5.3.3.1 Effect of Angled Ribs and Heating Condition 567
5.3.3.2 Comparison of Orthogonal and Angled Ribs 572
5.4 Effect of Channel Orientation with Respect to the Rotation Direction on Both Smooth and Ribbed Channels 572
5.4.1 Effect of Rotation Number 572
5.4.2 Effect of Model Orientation and Wall-Heating Condition 574
5.5 Effect of Channel Cross Section on Rotating Heat Transfer 582
5.5.1 Triangular Cross Section 582
5.5.2 Rectangular Channel 585
5.5.3 Circular Cross Section 587
5.5.4 Two-Pass Triangular Duct 588
5.6 Different Proposed Correlation to Relate the Heat Transfer with Rotational Effects 596
5.7 Heat-Mass-Transfer Analogy and Detail Measurements 603
5.8 Rotation Effects on Smooth-Wall Impingement Cooling 604
5.8.1 Rotation Effects on Leading-Edge Impingement Cooling 604
5.8.2 Rotation Effect on Midchord Impingement Cooling 613
5.8.3 Effect of Film-Cooling Hole 618
5.9 Rotational Effects on Rib-Turbulated Wall Impingement Cooling 619
5.10 New Information from 2000 to 2010 623
5.10.1 Heat Transfer in Rotating Triangular Cooling Channels 625
5.10.2 Heat Transfer in Rotating Wedge-Shaped Cooling Channels 633
5.10.3 Effect of Aspect Ratio and Rib Configurations on Rotating Channel Heat Transfer 643
5.10.4 Effect of High Rotation Number and Entrance Geometry on Rectangular Channel Heat Transfer 666
References 683
6.Experimental Methods 689
6.1 Introduction 689
6.2 Heat-Transfer Measurement Techniques 689
6.2.1 Introduction 689
6.2.2 Heat Flux Gages 690
6.2.3 Thin-Foil Heaters with Thermocouples 693
6.2.4 Copper Plate Heaters with Thermocouples 697
6.2.5 Transient Technique 698
6.3 Mass-Transfer Analogy Techniques 699
6.3.1 Introduction 699
6.3.2 Naphthalene Sublimation Technique 699
6.3.3 Foreign-Gas Concentration Sampling Technique 703
6.3.4 Swollen-Polymer Technique 705
6.3.5 Ammonia-Diazo Technique 706
6.3.6 Pressure-Sensitive Paint Techniques 707
6.3.7 Thermographic Phosphors 710
6.4 Liquid Crystal Thermography 713
6.4.1 Steady-State Yellow-Band Tracking Technique 713
6.4.2 Steady-State HSI Technique 714
6.4.3 Transient HSI Technique 717
6.4.4 Transient Single-Color Capturing Technique 719
6.5 Flow and Thermal Field Measurement Techniques 726
6.5.1 Introduction 726
6.5.2 Five-Hole Probe/Thermocouples 726
6.5.3 Hot-Wire/Cold-Wire Anemometry 728
6.5.4 Laser Doppler Velocimetry 729
6.5.5 Particle Image Velocimetry 731
6.5.6 Laser Holographic Interferometry 734
6.5.7 Surface Visualization 734
6.6 New Information from 2000 to 2010 739
6.6.1 Transient Thin-Film Heat Flux Gages 739
6.6.2 Advanced Liquid Crystal Thermography 743
6.6.3 Infrared Thermography 746
6.6.4 Pressure-Sensitive Paint 749
6.6.5 Temperature-Sensitive Paint 755
6.6.6 Flow and Thermal Field Measurements 759
6.7 Closure 761
References 761
7.Numerical Modeling 771
7.1 Governing Equations and Turbulence Models 771
7.1.1 Introduction 771
7.1.2 Governing Equations 772
7.1.3 Turbulence Models 773
7.1.3.1 Standard κ-ε Model 773
7.1.3.2 Low-Reκ-ε Model 774
7.1.3.3 Two-Layerκ-ε Model 775
7.1.3.4 κ-ω Model 775
7.1.3.5 Baldwin-Lomax Model 776
7.1.3.6 Second-Moment Closure Model 777
7.1.3.7 Algebraic Closure Model 777
7.2 Numerical Prediction of Turbine Heat Transfer 779
7.2.1 Introduction 779
7.2.2 Prediction of Turbine Blade/Vane Heat Transfer 779
7.2.3 Prediction of the Endwall Heat Transfer 785
7.2.4 Prediction of Blade Tip Heat Transfer 787
7.3 Numerical Prediction of Turbine Film Cooling 789
7.3.1 Introduction 789
7.3.2 Prediction of Flat-Surface Film Cooling 791
7.3.3 Prediction of Leading-Edge Film Cooling 796
7.3.4 Prediction of Turbine Blade Film Cooling 798
7.4 Numerical Prediction of Turbine Internal Cooling 799
7.4.1 Introduction 799
7.4.2 Effect of Rotation 799
7.4.3 Effect of 180° Turn 803
7.4.4 Effect of Transverse Ribs 809
7.4.5 Effect of Angled Ribs 809
7.4.6 Effect of Rotation on Channel Shapes 815
7.4.7 Effect of Coolant Extraction 818
7.5 New Information from 2000 to 2010 820
7.5.1 CFD for Turbine Film Cooling 820
7.5.2 CFD for Turbine Internal Cooling 823
7.5.3 CFD for Conjugate Heat Transfer and Film Cooling 825
7.5.4 CFD for Turbine Heat Transfer 829
References 830
8.Final Remarks 841
8.1 Turbine Heat Transfer and Film Cooling 841
8.2 Turbine Internal Cooling with Rotation 841
8.3 Turbine Edge Heat Transfer and Cooling 842
8.4 New Information from 2000 to 2010 842
8.5 Closure 843
Index 845