1 Introduction 1
1-1 Overview 1
1-2 Introduction 1
1-2-1 Historic Growth in Energy Supply 2
1-3 Relationship between Energy，Population，and Wealth 4
1-3-1 Correlation between Energy Use and Wealth 6
1-3-2 Human Development Index：An Alternative Means of Evaluating Prosperity 6
1-4 Pressures Facing World due to Energy Consumption 8
1-4-1 Industrial versus Emerging Countries 9
1-4-2 Pressure on CO2 Emissions 14
1-4-3 Observations about Energy Use and CO2 Emissions Trends 15
1-4-4 Discussion：Contrasting Mainstream and Deep Ecologic Perspectives on Energy Requirements 16
1-5 Energy Issues and the Contents of This Book 18
1-5-1 Motivations，Techniques，and Applications 18
1-5-2 Initial Comparison of Three Underlying Primary Energy Sources 19
1-6 Units of Measure Used in Energy Systems 22
1-6-1 Metric （SI） Units 22
1-6-2 U.S.Standard Customary Units 24
1-6-3 Units Related to Oil Production and Consumption 25
1-7 Summary 25
References 25
Bibliography 26
Exercises 26
2 Systems Tools for Energy Systems 29
2-1 Overview 29
2-2 Introduction 29
2-2-1 Conserving Existing Energy Resources versus Shifting to Alternative Resources 30
2-2-2 The Concept of Sustainable Development 31
2-3 Fundamentals of the Systems Approach 33
2-3-1 Initial Definitions 33
2-3-2 Steps in the Application of the Systems Approach 35
2-3-3 Stories，Scenarios，and Models 40
2-3-4 Systems Approach Applied to the Scope of this Book：Energy/Climate Challenges Compared to Other Challenges 43
2-4 Other Systems Tools Applied to Energy 46
2-4-1 Systems Dynamics Models：Exponential Growth，Saturation，and Causal Loops 46
2-5 Other Tools for Energy Systems 54
2-5-1 Kaya Equation：Factors That Contribute to Overall CO2 Emissions 54
2-5-2 Life-Cycle Analysis and Energy Return on Investment 56
2-5-3 Multi-Criteria Analysis of Energy Systems Decisions 58
2-5-4 Choosing among Alternative Solutions Using Optimization 60
2-5-5 Understanding Contributing Factors to Time-Series Energy Trends Using Divisia Analysis 63
2-5-6 Incorporating Uncertainty into Analysis Using Probabilistic Approaches and Monte Carlo Simulation 67
2-6 Summary 71
References 71
Bibliography 72
Exercises 72
3 Economic Tools for Energy Systems 75
3-1 Overview 75
3-2 Introduction 75
3-2-1 The Time Value of Money 76
3-3 Economic Analysis of Energy Projects and Systems 78
3-3-1 Definition of Terms 78
3-3-2 Evaluation without Discounting 78
3-3-3 Discounted Cash Flow Analysis 79
3-3-4 Levelized Cost of Energy 88
3-4 Direct versus External Costs and Benefits 88
3-5 Intervention in Energy Investments to Achieve Social Aims 89
3-5-1 Methods of Intervention in Energy Technology Investments 90
3-5-2 Critiques of Intervention in Energy Investments 92
3-6 Net Present Value （NPV） Case Study Example 93
3-7 Summary 97
References 97
Bibliography 98
Exercises 98
4 Climate Change and Climate Modeling 101
4-1 Overview 101
4-2 Introduction 101
4-2-1 Relationship between the Greenhouse Effect and Greenhouse Gas Emissions 102
4-2-2 Carbon Cycle and Solar Radiation 102
4-2-3 Quantitative Imbalance in CO2 Flows into and out of the Atmosphere 103
4-2-4 Consensus on the Human Link to Climate Change：Taking the Next Steps 106
4-2-5 Early Indications of Change and Remaining Areas of Uncertainty 107
4-3 Modeling Climate and Climate Change 110
4-3-1 Relationship between Wavelength，Energy Flux，and Absorption 111
4-3-2 A Model of the Earth-Atmosphere System 116
4-3-3 General Circulation Models （GCMs） of Global Climate 119
4-4 Climate in the Future 122
4-4-1 Positive and Negative Feedback from Climate Change 122
4-4-2 Scenarios for Future Rates of CO2 Emissions，CO2 Stabilization Values，and Average Global Temperature 124
4-4-3 Recent Efforts to Counteract Climate Change：The Kyoto Protocol （1997-2012） 127
4-4-4 Assessing the Effectiveness of the Kyoto Protocol and Description of Post-Kyoto Efforts 128
4-5 Summary 130
References 130
Bibliography 130
Exercises 131
5 Fossil Fuel Resources 133
5-1 Overview 133
5-2 Introduction 133
5-2-1 Characteristics of Fossil Fuels 134
5-2-2 Current Rates of Consumption and Total Resource Availability 137
5-2-3 CO2 Emissions Comparison and a “Decarbonization”Strategy 140
5-3 Decline of Conventional Fossil Fuels and a Possible Transition to Nonconventional Alternatives 141
5-3-1 Hubbert Curve Applied to Resource Lifetime 141
5-3-2 Potential Role for Nonconventional Fossil Resources as Substitutes for Oil and Gas 148
5-3-3 Discussion：Potential Ecological and Social Impacts of Evolving Fossil Fuel Extraction 149
5-3-4 Conclusion：The Past and Future of Fossil Fuels 152
5-4 Summary 154
Bibliography 155
Exercises 155
6 Stationary Combustion Systems 157
6-1 Overview 157
6-2 Introduction 157
6-2-1 A Systems Approach to Combustion Technology 159
6-3 Fundamentals of Combustion Cycle Calculation 160
6-3-1 Brief Review of Thermodynamics 160
6-3-2 Rankine Vapor Cycle 161
6-3-3 Brayton Gas Cycle 166
6-4 Advanced Combustion Cycles for Maximum Efficiency 169
6-4-1 Supercritical Cycle 170
6-4-2 Combined Cycle 171
6-4-3 Cogeneration and Combined Heat and Power 176
6-5 Economic Analysis of Stationary Combustion Systems 181
6-5-1 Calculation of Levelized Cost of Electricity Production 182
6-5-2 Case Study of Small-Scale Cogeneration Systems 184
6-5-3 Case Study of Combined Cycle Cogeneration Systems 188
6-5-4 Integrating Different Electricity Generation Sources into the Grid 191
6-6 Incorporating Environmental Considerations into Combustion Project Cost Analysis 196
6-7 Fossil Fuel Combustion in the Future 198
6-8 Systems Issues in Combustion in the Future 200
6-9 Summary 201
References 201
Bibliography 202
Exercises 202
7 Carbon Sequestration 205
7-1 Overview 205
7-2 Introduction 205
7-3 Indirect Sequestration 206
7-3-1 The Photosynthesis Reaction：The Core Process of Indirect Sequestration 208
7-3-2 Indirect Sequestration in Practice 209
7-3-3 Future Prospects for Indirect Sequestration 211
7-4 Geological Storage of CO2 212
7-4-1 Removing CO2 from Waste Stream 212
7-4-2 Options for Direct Sequestration in Geologically Stable Reservoirs 213
7-4-3 Prospects for Geological Sequestration 220
7-5 Sequestration through Conversion of CO2 into Inert Materials 221
7-6 Direct Removal of CO2 from Atmosphere for Sequestration 223
7-7 Overall Comparison of Sequestration Options 225
7-8 Summary 226
Reference 227
Bibliography 227
Exercises 228
8 Nuclear Energy Systems 231
8-1 Overview 231
8-2 Introduction 231
8-2-1 Brief History of Nuclear Energy 232
8-2-2 Current Status of Nuclear Energy 234
8-3 Nuclear Reactions and Nuclear Resources 236
8-3-1 Reactions Associated with Nuclear Energy 239
8-3-2 Availability of Resources for Nuclear Energy 242
8-4 Reactor Designs：Mature Technologies and Emerging Alternatives 243
8-4-1 Established Reactor Designs 243
8-4-2 Alternative Fission Reactor Designs 248
8-5 Nuclear Fusion 251
8-6 Nuclear Energy and Society：Environmental，Political，and Security Issues 254
8-6-1 Contribution of Nuclear Energy to Reducing CO2 Emissions 254
8-6-2 Management of Radioactive Substances during Life-Cycle of Nuclear Energy 255
8-6-3 Nuclear Energy and the Prevention of Proliferation 261
8-6-4 The Effect of Public Perception on Nuclear Energy 262
8-6-5 Future Prospects for Nuclear Energy 265
8-7 Summary 265
References 266
Bibliography 266
Exercises 267
9 The Solar Resource 269
9-1 Overview 269
9-1-1 Symbols Used in This Chapter 269
9-2 Introduction 269
9-2-1 Availability of Energy from the Sun and Geographic Availability 269
9-2-2 Direct，Diffuse，and Global Insolation 273
9-3 Definition of Solar Geometric Terms and Calculation of Sun’s Position by Time of Day 279
9-3-1 Relationship between Solar Position and Angle of Incidence on Solar Surface 283
9-3-2 Method for Approximating Daily Energy Reaching a Solar Device 285
9-4 Effect of Diffusion on Solar Performance 287
9-4-1 Effect of Surface Tilt on Insolation Diffusion 289
9-5 Summary 291
References 291
Bibliography 291
Exercises 292
10 Solar Photovoltaic Technologies 293
10-1 Overview 293
10-1-1 Symbols Used in This Chapter 293
10-2 Introduction 293
10-2-1 Alternative Approaches to Manufacturing PV Panels 298
10-3 Fundamentals of PV Cell Performance 300
10-3-1 Losses in PV Cells and Gross Current Generated by Incoming Light 301
10-3-2 Net Current Generated as a Function of Device Parameters 304
10-3-3 Other Factors Affecting Performance 307
10-3-4 Calculation of Unit Cost of PV Panels 307
10-4 Design and Operation of Practical PV Systems 308
10-4-1 Available System Components for Different Types of Designs 308
10-4-2 Estimating Output from PV System：Basic Approach 315
10-4-3 Estimating Output from PV System：Extended Approach 317
10-4-4 Economics of PV Systems 325
10-5 Life-Cycle Energy and Environmental Considerations 331
10-6 Summary 333
References 333
Bibliography 333
Exercises 334
11 Active Solar Thermal Applications 337
11-1 Overview 337
11-2 Symbols Used in This Chapter 337
11-3 General Comments 337
11-4 Flat-Plate Solar Collectors 339
11-4-1 General Characteristics，Flat-Plate Solar Collectors 339
11-4-2 Solar Collectors with Liquid as the Transport Fluid 340
11-4-3 Solar Collectors with Air as the Transport Fluid 341
11-4-4 Unglazed Solar Collectors 341
11-4-5 Other Heat Transfer Fluids for Flat-Plate Solar Collectors 341
11-4-6 Selective Surfaces 342
11-4-7 Reverse-Return Piping 342
11-4-8 Hybrid PV/Thermal Systems 343
11-4-9 Evacuated-Tube Solar Collectors 343
11-4-10 Performance Case Study of an Evacuated Tube System 344
11-5 Concentrating Collectors 347
11-5-1 General Characteristics，Concentrating Solar Collectors 347
11-5-2 Parabolic Trough Concentrating Solar Collectors 347
11-5-3 Parabolic Dish Concentrating Solar Collectors 348
11-5-4 Power Tower Concentrating Solar Collectors 349
11-5-5 Solar Cookers 350
11-6 Heat Transfer in Flat-Plate Solar Collectors 352
11-6-1 Solar Collector Energy Balance 352
11-6-2 Testing and Rating Procedures for Flat-Plate，Glazed Solar Collectors 354
11-6-3 Heat Exchangers and Thermal Storages 355
11-6-4 f-Chart for System Analysis 356
11-6-5 f-Chart for System Design 361
11-6-6 Optimizing the Combination of Solar Collector Array and Heat Exchanger 366
11-6-7 Pebble Bed Thermal Storage for Air Collectors 366
11-7 Summary 369
References 369
Bibliography 369
Exercises 369
12 Passive Solar Thermal Applications 371
12-1 Overview 371
12-2 Symbols Used in This Chapter 371
12-3 General Comments 371
12-4 Thermal Comfort Considerations 373
12-5 Building Enclosure Considerations 374
12-6 Heating Degree Days and Seasonal Heat Requirements 374
12-6-1 Adjusting HDD Values to a Different Base Temperature 375
12-7 Types of Passive Solar Heating Systems 377
12-7-1 Direct Gain 378
12-7-2 Indirect Gain，Trombe Wall 378
12-7-3 Isolated Gain 380
12-8 Solar Transmission through Windows 381
12-9 Load：Collector Ratio Method for Analysis 382
12-10 Conservation Factor Addendum to the LCR Method 387
12-11 Load：Collector Ratio Method for Design 389
12-12 Passive Ventilation by Thermal Buoyancy 392
12-13 Designing Window Overhangs for Passive Solar Systems 394
12-14 Summary 396
References 396
Exercises 397
13 Wind Energy Systems 399
13-1 Overview 399
13-2 Introduction 399
13-2-1 Components of a Turbine 403
13-2-2 Comparison of Onshore and Offshore Wind 405
13-2-3 Alternative Turbine Designs：Horizontal versus Vertical Axis 406
13-3 Using Wind Data to Evaluate a Potential Location 407
13-3-1 Using Statistical Distributions to Approximate Available Energy 409
13-3-2 Effects of Height，Season，Time of Day，and Direction on Wind Speed 413
13-4 Estimating Output from a Specific Turbine for a Proposed Site 417
13-4-1 Rated Capacity and Capacity Factor 420
13-5 Turbine Design 420
13-5-1 Theoretical Limits on Turbine Performance 421
13-5-2 Tip Speed Ratio，Induced Radial Wind Speed，and Optimal Turbine Rotation Speed 425
13-5-3 Analysis of Turbine Blade Design 429
13-5-4 Steps in Turbine Design Process 435
13-6 Economic and Social Dimensions of Wind Energy Feasibility 437
13-6-1 Comparison of Large- and Small-Scale Wind 438
13-6-2 Public Perception of Wind Energy and Social Feasibility 441
13-7 Summary 442
References 443
Bibliography 443
Exercises 444
14 Bioenergy Resources and Systems 449
14-1 Overview 449
14-2 Introduction 449
14-2-1 Policies 450
14-2-2 Net Energy Balance Ratio and Life-Cycle Analysis 451
14-2-3 Productivity of Fuels per Unit of Cropland per Year 453
14-3 Biomass 454
14-3-1 Sources of Biomass 455
14-3-2 Pretreatment Technologies 457
14-4 Platforms 458
14-4-1 Sugar Platform 458
14-4-2 Syngas Platform 458
14-4-3 Bio-oil Platform 459
14-4-4 Carboxylate Platform 460
14-5 Alcohol 460
14-5-1 Sugarcane to Ethanol 462
14-5-2 Corn Grain to Ethanol 463
14-5-3 Cellulosic Ethanol 466
14-5-4 n-Butanol 466
14-6 Biodiesel 467
14-6-1 Production Processes 468
14-6-2 Life-Cycle Assessment 469
14-7 Methane and Hydrogen （Biogas） 469
14-7-1 Anaerobic Digestion 470
14-7-2 Anaerobic Hydrogen-Producing Systems 473
14-8 Summary 474
References 474
Exercises 475
15 Transportation Energy Technologies 477
15-1 Overview 477
15-2 Introduction 477
15-2-1 Definition of Terms 480
15-2-2 Endpoint Technologies for a Petroleum- and Carbon-Free Transportation System 480
15-2-3 Competition between Emerging and Incumbent Technologies 484
15-3 Vehicle Design Considerations and Alternative Propulsion Designs 486
15-3-1 Criteria for Measuring Vehicle Performance 486
15-3-2 Options for Improving Conventional Vehicle Efficiency 491
15-4 Alternatives to ICEVs：Alternative Fuels and Propulsion Platforms 492
15-4-1 Battery-Electric Vehicles 492
15-4-2 Hybrid Vehicles 497
15-4-3 Biofuels：Adapting Bio-energy for Transportation Applications 506
15-4-4 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Systems and Vehicles 508
15-5 Well-to-Wheel Analysis as a Means of Comparing Alternatives 517
15-6 Summary 519
References 519
Bibliography 519
Exercises 521
16 Systems Perspective on Transportation Energy 523
16-1 Overview 523
16-2 Introduction 523
16-2-1 Ways of Categorizing Transportation Systems 525
16-2-2 Influence of Transportation Type on Energy Requirements 527
16-2-3 Units for Measuring Transportation Energy Efficiency 528
16-3 Recent Trends and Current Assessment of Energy Use in Transportation Systems 530
16-3-1 Passenger Transportation Energy Trends and Current Status 533
16-3-2 Freight Transportation Energy Trends and Current Status 537
16-4 Applying a Systems Approach to Transportation Energy 542
16-4-1 Modal Shifting to More Efficient Modes 542
16-4-2 Rationalizing Transportation Systems to Improve Energy Efficiency 552
16-4-3 Integrating Light-Duty Vehicles and Electricity Supply to Optimize Vehicle Charging and Grid Performance 555
16-5 Understanding Transition Pathways for New Technology 559
16-6 Toward a Policy for Future Transportation Energy from a Systems Perspective 564
16-6-1 Metropolitan Region Energy Efficiency Plan 564
16-6-2 Allocating Emerging Energy Sources and Technologies to Transportation Sectors 566
16-7 Summary 568
References 568
Bibliography 569
Exercises 570
17 Conclusion：Creating the Twenty-First Century Energy System 573
17-1 Overview 573
17-2 Introduction：A Parable about Development 573
17-2-1 Summary of Issues Facing Energy Systems 575
17-2-2 Comparison of Three Energy System Endpoints：Toward a Portfolio Approach 576
17-2-3 Other Emerging Technologies Not Previously Considered 578
17-3 Pathways to a Sustainable Energy Future：A Case Study 584
17-3-1 Baseline Scenario Results 586
17-3-2 Other Possible Scenarios 587
17-3-3 Discussion 588
17-4 The Role of the Energy Professional in Creating the Energy Systems of the Future 594
17-4-1 Roles for Energy Professionals Outside of Formal Work 595
17-5 Summary 597
References 597
Bibliography 597
Exercise 598
A Perpetual Julian Date Calendar 599
B LCR Table 601
C CF Table 607
D Numerical Answers to Select Problems 613
E Common Conversions 615
F Information about Thermodynamic Constants 617
Index 619