PART ONE:Aframeworkforteachingandlearning 5
1 Learners and learning,classrooms and contexts 7
1.1 Introduction:issues for the language teacher 9
1.2 What do we know about how languages are learned? 10
1.2.1 The nature ofinput 10
1.2.2 The process ofintake 12
1.2.3 The role ofinteraction in the classroom 13
1.2.4 The role oferror 15
1.3 How do differences among learners affect learning processes and teaching procedures? 16
1.3.1 Aptitude 17
1.3.2 Learning style and learning strategies 18
1.3.3 Affective factors 20
1.3.4 Motivation for learning English 22
1.4 What factors of context should teachers take into account? 24
1.5 What roles can teachers and learners play in the learning process? 26
1.5.1 The teacher's roles and responsibilities 26
1.5.2 The Iearner's roles and responsibilities 34
1.6 What roles can learning materials play? 36
1.7 Conclusion 39
Discussion topics and projects 39
Further reading 41
2 The communicative classroom 43
2.1 Introduction:the concept ofcommunicative language ability 44
2.2 What are the components ofcommunicative language ability? 46
2.2.1 Linguistic competence 46
2.2.2 Pragmatic competence 48
2.2.3 Discourse competence 50
2.2.4 Strategic competence 52
2.2.5 Fluency 54
2.3 What are the issues for the communicative curriculum? 55
2.4 What are the implications for the communicative classroom? 57
2.4.1 What are communicative tasks and what are their roles in teaching and learning? 57
2.4.2 How can we manage a communicative classroom? 62
2.4.3 What does communicative language teaching imply for authenticity in the classroom? 67
2.5 What are the issues in applying a communicative approach in context? 69
2.6 Conclusion 71
Discussion topics and projects 72
Further reading 74
3 Learner autonomy and learner training 75
3.1 Introduction:the self-directed learner 76
3.2 What do we know about the strategies ofthe'good language learner'? 77
3.2.1 Types oflearner strategy 77
3.2.2 Research into learner strategies 79
3.3 What insights can we gain from educational thinking on autonomous learning? 82
3.4 What are the implications for learner training in the classroom? 85
3.4.1 Activities which help learners to reflect on learning 86
3.4.2 Activities which train strategies and equip learners to be active 90
3.4.3 Activities which encourage learners to monitor and check their own progress 94
3.5 What role can self-access facilities play in language learning? 96
3.6 Are learner autonomy and learner training universally appropriate concepts? 99
3.7 Conclusion 101
Discussion topics and projects 102
Further reading 105
PART TWO:Teaching the language system 107
4 Vocabulary 109
4.1 Introduction:the task oflearning vocabulary 110
4.2 What do we know about the lexical system ofEnglish? 112
4.2.1 Denotative and connotative meaning 112
4.2.2 Meaning relations amongwords 113
4.3 How do second language learners acquire vocabulary? 116
4.3.1 Strategies for vocabulary learning 117
4.3.2 Factors affecting vocabulary acquisition 118
4.4 What are the implications for the teaching ofvocabulary? 125
4.4.2 Encouraging the development ofeffective strategies 126
4.4.1 Developing a variety oftechniques for the teaching ofmeaning 126
4.4.3 Exposing learners to vocabulary through reading and training lexical inferencing 128
4.4.4 Teaching the effective use ofdictionaries 130
4.4.5 Evaluating the vocabulary component of coursebooks 132
4.4.6 Teaching vocabulary explicitly through a range of activity types 133
4.4.7 Developing resources for vocabulary teaching 135
4.5 Conclusion 138
Discussion topics and projects 139
Further reading 140
5 Grammar 143
5.1 Introduction:the role ofgrammar in English language teaching 143
5.2.1 Noticing 146
5.2.2 Reasoning and hypothesizing 146
5.2 What do we know about the learning ofgrammar? 146
5.2.3 Structuring and restructuring 148
5.2.4 Automatizing 149
5.3 What information can help us in the selection and presentation ofgrammar? 152
5.3.1 Grammar as meaning 153
5.3.2 Grammar in discourse 154
5.3.3 Grammar and style 157
5.4 What principles can guide us in the teaching ofgrammar? 158
5.4.1 Presenting grammar 159
5.4.2 Practising grammar 164
5.4.3 How can we design the grammar component of a course? 170
5.4.4 How can we suit approach to learner needs? 173
Discussion topics and projects 179
5.5 Conclusion 179
Further reading 183
PART THREE:Developingthelanguage skills 185
6 Reading 187
6.1 Introduction:making sense ofa text 188
6.2 What do we know about the process ofsecond language reading? 190
6.2.1 In what ways is reading an interactive process? 190
6.2.2 In what ways is reading a purposeful process? 194
6.2.3 In what ways is reading a critical process? 197
6.2.4 What is the role ofextensive reading? 200
6.3 What are the implications for the teaching ofreading? 205
6.3.1 How do we establish goals for the reading classroom? 205
6.3.2 What criteria do we use to select reading texts? 205
6.3.3 What kinds oftasks help to develop reading ability? 209
6.3.4 Can we help students to read critically? 213
6.3.5 How can we encourage extensive reading? 215
6.4 Conclusion 221
Discussion topics and projects 221
Further reading 224
7 Listening 227
7.1 Introduction:the role oflistening in the ELT curriculum 227
7.2 What do we know about the listening process? 230
7.2.1 Bottom-up processes in listening 230
7.2.2 Top-down processes in listening 232
7.2.3 Purposes for listening 235
7.3 What'uncertainties'exist for foreign language listeners? 236
7.3.1 Uncertainties ofconfidence 237
7.3.3 Uncertainties because ofgaps in the message 238
7.3.2 Uncertainties deriving from the presentation of speech 238
7.3.4 Uncertain strategies 239
7.3.5 Uncertainties oflanguage 239
7.3.6 Uncertainties ofcontent 241
7.3.7 Visual uncertainties 242
7.4 What are the implications for the English language classroom? 243
7.4.1 Creating reasons for listening 243
7.4.2 Selecting texts for listening 244
7.4.3 Designing listening activities for the classroom 247
7.4.4 Building confidence in listening to English 253
7.5 Conclusion 255
Discussion topics and projects 255
Further reading 257
8 Speaking 259
8.1 Introduction:skills and strategies in speaking English 261
8.2 What is involved in speaking English competently? 263
8.2.1 Distinguishing types ofspeaking situation 263
8.2.2 Making oneselfunderstood 265
8.2.3 Managing interaction 267
8.3 What are the issues in teaching the phonological aspects of English? 268
8.3.1 Choosing a model for pronunciation teaching 268
8.3.2 Taking a holistic or atomistic approach 269
8.3.3 Selecting practice according to student need 270
8.4 What are the implications for classroom practice in the teaching of spoken English? 271
8.4.1 Talking with students about spoken English 271
8.4.2 Making accuracy-based practice meaningful 273
8.4.3 Designing and evaluating fluency-based activities 276
8.4.4 Providing a range and balance ofactivities in a course 283
8.4.5 Teaching the pronunciation component ofa course 285
8.4.6 Treating error in the classroom 288
8.4.7 Managing classroom interaction 292
8.5 Conclusion 294
Discussion topics and projects 295
Further reading 297
9 Writing 299
9.1 Introduction:a contemporary writing classroom 300
9.2 What do we know about the process ofwriting? 302
9.2.1 What strategies do skilled writers use as they compose? 303
9.2.2 What activities characterize the writing process? 305
9.3 What are the implications ofa process approach? 307
9.3.1 Helping students to generate ideas 308
9.3.2 Providing practice in planning 308
9.3.3 Contextualizing tasks to develop a sense of audience 311
9.3.4 Encouraging students in revision strategies 313
9.3.5 Supporting students with technology 316
9.3.6 Issues in introducing a process approach 317
9.4 How can we analyse and describe the structure of written texts? 319
9.5 What are the implications ofa text-based approach to writing? 321
9.5.1 Helping studentstoidentifytheirwritingneeds 321
9.5.2 Building awareness ofdiscourse organization 321
9.5.4 Enabling students to appreciate the criteria for an effectivetext 326
9.5.3 Helping students to develop crafting skills 326
9.6 Conclusion 329
Discussion topics and projects 330
Further reading 332
PART FOUR:Planning and assessing learning 335
10 Course design 337
10.1 Introduction:roles for the teacher in course design 338
10.2 What are the steps in course design? 339
10.2.1 Considering the students in their context of learning 343
10.2.2 Establishing goals and objectives 344
10.2.3 Planning the syllabus 345
10.2.4 Designing a course unit 347
10.2.5 What procedures can be helpful in evaluating courses? 351
10.3.1 Choosing a textbook 357
10.3 What choices do teachers need to make in course design? 357
10.3.2 Taking a process approach 358
10.3.3 Using projects in ELT 362
10.3.4 Negotiating with learners 364
10.4 Conclusion 366
Discussion topics and projects 367
Further reading 372
11 Classroom assessment by Pauline Rea-Dickins 375
11.1 Introduction:assessment and testing 376
11.2 What is testing? 378
11.2.1 The structuralist influence 378
11.2.2 The communicative influence 379
11.3.1 What purposes should classroom assessment have? 384
11.3 What is the role of classroom assessment? 384
11.3.2 What kind of feedback is useful? 385
11.3.3 What assessment procedures are available? 386
11.4 What characterizes good assessment practice? 393
11.4.1 Are affective considerations relevant to assessment? 393
11.4.2 How can good assessment practice be framed? 394
11.5 Conclusion 396
Discussion topics and projects 397
Further reading 400
Appendix:Notes on Introductory tasks 403
Glossary 407
Bibliography 413
Index 438