1 Introduction 1
Background 3
Research on learning strategies 3
Theoretical background in second language acquisition 8
Overview of the book 13
2 A cognitive theory of learning 16
Background 16
Language as a cognitive skill 19
Representation in memory 20
Stages of skill acquisition 25
Complements to the stage-related theory of learning 27
Language comprehension 33
Language production 37
Learning strategies as cognitive skills 42
Definition and classification 43
Strategies as cognitive processes 47
Conclusions 54
3 How cognitive theory applies to second language acquisition 56
Background 57
Declarative knowledge 68
Relationship of cognitive theory to specific constructs 68
Procedural knowledge 73
Stages of skill acquisition 77
Conclusions 83
4 Learning strategies: methods and research 85
A framework for data collection on learning strategies 86
Objective of data collection 86
Language task 88
Temporal relationship 90
Informant training 91
Elicitation procedures 92
Individual versus group data collection 95
Multiple data collection procedures 95
Issues in the use of self-report data 96
Review of research on applications of learning strategies 98
Definition and classification 99
Descriptions of strategy applications 104
Validation of strategy effectiveness 107
Conclusions 112
Study 1: learning strategies used by beginning and intermediate ESL students 114
5 Strategies used by second language learners 114
Study 2: learning strategies used by foreign language students 123
Study 3: listening comprehension strategies used by ESL students 128
Study 4: longitudinal study of learning strategies used by foreign language students for different language tasks 133
Summary 143
Metacognitive and cognitive strategies 144
Declarative versus procedural knowledge 145
Stages of skill acquisition 147
Experts versus novices 149
Conclusions 150
6 Instruction in learning strategies 151
Issues in instruction 152
Separate versus integrated instruction 152
Direct versus embedded instruction 153
Instructional implementation 154
Student characteristics 160
Review of representative studies 165
Instruction in learning strategies for second language acquisition 165
Learning strategy instruction in first language contexts 167
Study 1: learning strategy instruction with students of English as a second language 170
Study 2: learning strategies taught by foreign language instructors 175
Conclusions 184
7 learning strategies: models and materials 187
Instructional models in first language contexts: strategic teaching 187
Instructional models in second language contexts: the Cognitive Academic Language learning Approach 190
Theoretical framework of CALLA 191
The components lf CALLA 193
CALLA lesson plan model 201
Second language learning strategy training materials 204
Learning strategy materials for adult language learners 204
Learning strategy materials for content-based ESL 210
Conclusions 212
8 Summary and conclusions 214
Theoretical developments 214
Research 220
Definitional/classification studies 220
Strategy description 222
Validation studies 224
Glossary 229
References 235
Author index 249
Subject index 253