Chapter 1 Linguistics-A Pilot Science 1
1.1 Why Study Linguistics？ 1
1.2 What Is Language？-Defining the Object of Study 2
1.3 Origin of Language 3
1.4 Design Features of Language 5
1.4.1 Arbitrariness 5
1.4.2 Duality 10
1.4.3 Creativity 11
1.4.4 Displacement 12
1.5 Animal Communication Systems,Gesture and Other Language Forms 12
1.6 Perspectives of Language Studies 15
1.6.1 Language as Innate Human Knowledge 16
1.6.2 Language as a Fixed Code 17
1.6.3 Language as a System 17
1.6.4 Language as Interaction 19
1.7 Functions of Language 20
1.7.1 Theories of the Functions of Language 20
1.7.2 Referential Function 22
1.7.3 Interpersonal Function 23
1.7.4 Performative Function 24
1.7.5 Emotive Function 24
1.7.6 Phatic Communion 25
1.7.8 Metalingual Function 26
1.7.7 Recreational Function 26
1.8 Important Distinctions in Linguistics 27
1.8.1 Descriptive vs. Prescriptive 27
1.8.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic 30
1.8.3 Langue Parole 31
1.8.4 Competence and Performance 32
1.8.5 Actual and Potential Linguistic Choice 34
1.8.6 Etic vs. Emic 34
1.8.7 Formalism vs. Functionalism 36
1.9 Data of Linguistics 38
1.10 Status and Prospect of Linguistics 40
References 42
Chapter 2 Phonetics 45
2.1 The Study of Speech Sounds 45
2.1.1 Aspects of the Study of Speech Sounds 45
2.1.2 Speech Production and Perception 46
2.2 Speech Organs 47
2.3 Segments,Divergences,and Phonetic Transcription 51
2.3.1 Segments and Divergences 51
2.3.2 Phonetic Transcription and the IPA 52
2.3.3 Consonants and Vowels 55
2.4 Consonants 55
2.4.1 Manners of Articulation 56
2.4.2 Places of Articulation 59
2.4.3 The Consonants of English 61
2.5 Vowels 62
2.5.1 The Criteria of Vowel Description 62
2.5.2 The Theory of Cardinal Vowels 63
2.5.3 The Change of Vowel Quality 66
2.6 The Vowels of English 66
2.7 Coarticulation,Broad and Narrow Transcriptions 74
2.7.1 Coarticulation 74
2.7.2 Broad and Narrow Transcriptions 75
2.8 Syllables 76
2.8.1 The Syllable Structure 76
2.8.2 Sonority Scale 77
2.8.3 The Problems with the Sonority Scale 79
2.8.4 Syllabification and the Maximal Onset Principle 79
2.9 Stress 80
2.9.1 Stressed and Unstressed Syllables 80
2.9.2 Stress in English 80
2.9.3 Primary and Secondary Stresses 81
2.9.4 Sentence Stress 81
2.10 Pitch,Intonation,and Tone 82
2.10.1 Pitch 82
2.10.2 Intonation 83
2.10.3 Tone 86
References 87
2.10.4 Stress,Tone,and Pitch Accent Languages 87
3.1 Phonological Analysis 90
Chapter 3 Phonology 90
3.2 Phonemes and Allophones 91
3.2.1 Minimal Pairs 91
3.2.2 The Phoneme Theory 93
3.2.3 Allophones 94
3.3 Phonological Processes 97
3.3.1 Assimilation 97
3.3.2 Phonological Processes and Phonological Rules 98
3.3.3 Rule Ordering 100
3.4.1 The Theory of Distinctive Features 103
3.4 Distinctive Features 103
3.4.2 A List of Distinctive Features 105
3.5 Optimality Theory 109
3.6 Conclusion 113
References 114
Chapter 4 Morphology 116
4.1 Introduction 116
4.2 Morphemes,Morphs and Allomorphs 117
4.3 Classifying Morphemes 119
4.3.1 Free versus Bound Morphemes 120
4.3.2 Derivational versus Inflectional Morphemes 121
4.3.3 Lexical versus Grammatical Morphemes 122
4.4 Identifying Morphemes 123
4.5 Allomorphy 125
4.5.1 Phonological Conditioning 125
4.5.2 Morphological Conditioning 126
4.5.3 Stylistic Conditioning 128
4.6 Word,Word-form and Lexeme 128
4.7 Morphology and Word-formation 130
4.7.1 Root,Stem and Base 130
4.7.2 Affix 132
4.7.3 Hierarchical Structure of Words 133
4.7.4 Productivity 136
4.7.5 Word-formation Processes 137
4.8 Approaches and problems 141
4.8.1 Item and Arrangement 142
4.8.2 Item and Process 142
4.8.3 Word and Paradigm 143
4.8.4 Character-based Approach 143
References 145
Chapter 5 Generative Syntax 148
5.1 Generative Grammar：Some Basic Assumptions 148
5.1.1 Generative Grammar and Chomsky 148
5.1.2 E-language and I-language 149
5.1.3 Criteria of Adequacy 150
5.2 Phrase Structure Grammar 152
5.1.4 The Development of Generative Grammar：Three Theoretical Models 152
5.2.1 Rule-Generated Language：A Simple Example 153
5.2.2 Context Free Phrase Structure Rules 154
5.2.3 Transformation 157
5.2.4 Subcategorizaton 159
5.3 Projection from Lexicon 162
5.3.1 Some Conceptual Difficulties with Phrase Structural Rules 162
5.3.2 Projection Principle 164
5.3.3 The Extended Projection Principle 166
5.3.4 Adjunction 170
5.3.5 X-bar Schema 172
5.3.6 Extending X-bar Schema to Functional Categories 175
5.3.7 Theta-theory 182
5.3.8 Movement and Trace 187
5.3.9 Case Theory 191
5.3.10 Types of Syntactic Relations 193
5.4 The Minimalist Approach 203
5.4.1 Merge/Move 204
5.4.2 Minimizing to Bare Essentials 208
5.4.3 Checking and Checking Theory 210
5.4.4 VP Shells 219
References 225
6.1.1 Subject 228
6.1 Vilém Mathesius 228
Chapter 6 Functional Syntax 228
6.1.2 Predication 230
6.1.3 Object 234
6.1.4 Subject-predicate Relations 239
6.1.5 Object-predicate Relations 241
6.1.6 Functional Sentence Perspective(FSP) 242
6.2 Franti？ek Dane？ 244
6.2.1 A Three-level Approach to Syntax 244
6.2.2 Sentence Patterns and Predicate Classes 248
6.3 Michael Halliday 257
6.3.1 Processes 258
6.3.2 Participants 261
6.3.3 Circumstances 267
6.4 Summary 272
References 272
Chapter 7 Semantics 278
7.1 Introduction 278
7.2 Meanings of “Meaning” 279
7.3 The Referential Theory 281
7.4 Sense Relations 283
7.4.1 Synonymy 284
7.4.2 Antonymy 284
7.4.3 Hyponymy 289
7.5 Componential Analysis 291
7.6 Sentence Meaning 294
7.6.1 An Integrated Theory 295
7.6.2 Logical Semantics 300
7.6.3 Montague Semantics 307
Referemces 314
Chapter 8 Linguistic Comparison 316
8.1 Introduction 316
8.2 Comparative and Historical Linguistics 317
8.2.1 The Emergence of the Branch of Linguistics 317
8.2.2 The Stages of Development 317
8.3 Typological Comparison 338
8.3.1 Linguistic Typology and Linguistic Universals 339
8.3.2 Typological Classification 342
8.3.3 Implicational Universals 346
8.3.4 Functional Typological Classification 350
References 356
Chapter 9 Language,Culture,and Society 358
9.1 Introduction 358
9.2 Language and Culture 359
9.2.1 How Does Language Relate to Culture？ 360
9.2.2 What More Should We Know about the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis？ 365
9.2.3 What Evidence Can We Give to Show the Close Relationship Between Language and Culture？ 370
9.2.4 To What Extent Do We Need Culture in Our Linguistic Study？ 371
9.3 Language and Society 372
9.3.1 How Does Language Relate to Society？ 374
9.3.2 What Do We Mean by a Situationally and Socially Variationist Perspective？ 374
9.3.3 What More Should We Know about Sociolinguistics？ 377
9.3.4 What Implications Can We Get from Sociolinguistics？ 381
9.4 Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching 383
9.4.1 How Are Some Leading Sociolinguistic Theories Related to Language Teaching？ 384
9.4.2 Why Should We Teach Cultural Things in Our Classroom？ 390
9.4.3 What Should We Teach about Culture in Our Classroom？ 394
9.4.4 What Contributions Has Sociolinguistics Provided to the Field of Language Teaching？ 396
9.5 Summary 397
References 398
Chapter 10 Psycholinguistics 405
10.1 Introduction 405
10.2 Language Comprehension 407
10.2.1 Modularity 407
10.2.2 Speech Perception 409
10.2.3 Lexical Access 410
10.2.4 Sentence Processing 411
10.2.5 Discourse and Text Comprehension 416
10.2.6 The Underlying Elements of Reading 420
10.3 Language Production 427
10.3.1 From Concept to Expression 428
10.3.2 Implications from Error Data 430
10.4 Illustrated Experiment：A Comparative Study of Understanding English and Chinese Texts 432
10.4.1 Experimental Design 432
10.4.2 Hypothesis and Prediction 433
10.4.3 Methods 433
10.4.4 Discussions on Hypothesis 436
References 438
Chapter 11 Pragmatics 443
11.1 Introduction 443
11.2 Speech Act Theory 444
11.2.1 Performatives and Constatives 444
11.2.2 A Theory of the Illocutionary Act 447
11.2.3 Classes of Illocutionary Acts 449
11.2.4 Searle s Revisions 451
11.3 The Classical Theory of Implicature 456
11.3.1 The Cooperative Principle 456
11.3.2 Violation of the Maxims 459
11.3.3 Characteristics of Implicature 462
11.4 Post-Gricean Developments 466
11.4.1 Relevance Theory 466
11.4.2 The Q-and R-principles 473
11.4.3 The Q-,I-and M-principles 479
References 487
12.1.1 Chinese Stylistics 489
12.1 Introduction 489
Chapter 12 Stylistics 489
12.1.2 Western Stylistics 490
12.1.3 Chinese Studies of Western Stylistics 490
12.2 Style and Stylistics 491
12.2.1 What Is Style？ 491
12.2.2 For Whom the Stylistician Works？Writer？Text？Reader？Context？Or Meaning？ 492
12.3 Style as Rhetoric：the Initial Stage of Stylistics 493
12.4 One Style or Several Styles？ 495
12.5 Aspects of Style：the Writer-Style as Writer s Individual/Personal Singularities 498
12.5.1 Buffon：Style Is the Man Himself 498
12.5.2 Spitzer：The Philological Circle and Its Methods 500
12.6.1 Jakobson s Projection Theory：Style as Structural Equivalence 502
12.6 Aspects of Style：the Text-Style as Linguistic Sameness(Structural Equivalence) 502
12.6.2 Ohmann s Structural Transformation Theory：Style as Transformation 504
12.7 Aspects of Style：the Text-Style as Linguistic Difference 507
12.7.1 Types of Deviation(Leech,1969) 507
12.7.2 The Significance of Deviation 511
12.8 Aspects of Style：the Reader-Style as Reader s Response 511
12.8.1 Stylistic Facts versus Linguistic Facts 512
12.8.2 Reader s Response 512
12.8.3 The Absence of the Reader 512
12.8.4 The Responses 513
12.8.5 The Superreader 513
12.9.1 Linguistics versus Stylistics 514
12.8.6 Comments on Riffaterre s Theory 514
12.9 Aspects of Style：the Context：Style as Function 514
12.9.2 Stylistic Factors and Differentiations 516
12.9.3 Main Features of the Basic Functional Styles of the Standard Language 518
12.9.4 Style as Foregrounding 519
12.10 Aspects of Style：the Meaning：Style as Meaning Potential 520
12.10.1 Linguistic Stylistics 520
12.10.2 Hallidayan Analysis 522
12.11 Concluding Remarks：Linguistics,Literary Criticism,and Stylistics 526
12.11.1 Linguistics and Stylistics 526
12.11.2 Linguistic Critic 526
12.11.3 Literary Criticism 527
12.11.4 Stylistics：an Area of Mediation 528
References 529
Chapter 13 Computational Linguistics 532
13.1 What is Computational Linguistics？ 532
13.2 Computer-assisted Language Learning(CALL) 533
13.2.1 Definition and Activities 533
13.2.2 Phases of CALL Development 534
13.2.3 Technology 538
13.3 Machine Translation 540
13.3.1 History of Development 540
13.3.2 Research Methods 543
13.3.3 Evaluation of MT and Translation Tools 545
13.3.4 MT and the Internet 546
13.3.5 Speech Translation 547
13.3.6 MT and Human Translation 547
13.4 Corpus Linguistics 550
13.4.1 Definition 550
13.4.2 Development,Categorization and Taxonomy 551
13.4.3 Constructing a Corpus 554
13.4.4 Concordances and Corpora 556
13.5 Information Retrieval 558
13.5.1 Scope Defined 558
13.5.2 An Information Retrieval System 559
13.5.3 Three Main Areas of Research 560
13.6 Internet 562
13.6.1 Email 563
13.6.2 News 564
13.6.3 Newsgroup and Chatroom 565
13.7 Looking into the Future 566
References 567
Chapter 14 Second Language Acquisition 572
14.1 Introduction 572
14.2 The Role of Internal Mechanisms 573
14.2.1 The UG Approach 573
14.2.2 UG and SLA 576
14.2.3 Connectionism and SLA 579
14.2.4 The Information Processing Approach to SLA 582
14.2.5 Skehen s Information Processing Framework 584
14.3 The Role of Native Language 587
14.4 Input,Interaction and Output 592
14.5 Non-language Influences 595
14.6 Summary 600
References 600
Chapter 15 Linguistics and Second Language Teaching 605
15.1 An Overview 607
15.2 Stage Ⅰ(1880-1940)：Implicit Influence 609
15.2.1 Francois Gouin s Initial Attempt 610
15.2.2 Henry Sweet s Linguistic Approach 612
15.2.3 Harold Palmer as Father of British Applied Linguistics 613
15.2.4 Summary 614
15.3 Stage Ⅱ(1940-1960)：Positive and Powerful 614
15.3.1 The Army Method in the Wartime 614
15.3.2 The Audiolingual Method 616
15.3.3 Contrastive Analysis 617
15.3.4 Summary 618
15.4 Stage Ⅲ(1960-1970)：Negative but Powerful 619
15.4.1 TG Grammar as a Liberating Force in L2 Teaching 619
15.4.2 The Cognitive Approach 621
15.4.3 Error Analysis 622
15.5 Stage Ⅳ(1970-1980)：Inconsistent 624
15.4.4 Summary 624
15.5.1 The Communicative Approach 625
15.5.2 The Natural Approach 628
15.5.3 Diversification in Teaching Methods 630
15.5.4 Summary 634
15.6 Stage Ⅴ(1980-2000)：Complex 634
15.6.1 Changes in the Field of Applied Linguistics 635
15.6.2 An Enlightened Eclectic approach Proposed by Douglas Brown 639
15.6.3 A Balanced Approach by Peter Skehan 646
15.6.4 Summary 656
References 657
16.1.1 Introduction 661
Chapter 16 Modern Theorles and Schools of Linguistics 661
16.1 The Beginning of Modern Linguistics 661
16.1.2 Sources of Saussure s Ideas 662
16.1.3 Saussure s Theorizing 666
16.1.4 Saussure s Legacy 670
16.1.5 Conclusion 671
16.2 The Prague School and the Copenhagen School 672
16.2.1 The Prague School 672
16.2.2 The Copenhagen School 681
16.3 The London School 683
16.3.1 Malinowski 684
16.3.2 Firth 686
16.3.3 Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 692
16.3.4 Conclusion 707
16.4 American Structuralism 708
16.4.1 Early Period：Boas and Sapir 708
16.4.2 Bloomfield s Theory 712
16.4.3 Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics 715
16.4.4 Conclusion 718
16.5 Transformational-Generative Grammar 719
16.5.1 The Innateness Hypothesis 721
16.5.2 What Is a Generative Grammar？ 724
16.5.3 The Classical Theory 725
16.5.4 The Standard Theory 731
16.5.5 The Extended Standard Theory 734
16.5.6 Later Theories 736
16.5.7 Conclusion 738
16.6 Other Theories：Revisionists or Rebels？ 740
16.6.1 Stratificational Grammar 740
16.6.2 Case Grammar 742
16.6.3 Generative Semantics 744
16.6.4 Relational Grammar 746
16.7 Concluding Remarks 749
References 750
Index 754