Chapter1．EnvironmentalStandards,Markets,andthe 1
CommonLawTheConceptofEnvironmentalRegulation 1
Chapter1．EnvironmentalStandards,Markets,andthe 1
EthicsandEfficiency:TheMoralBasisofPollution 2
ControlTheEPAandItsAuthoritytoPermitandEnforce 3
SettingtheStandardforEmissionstothe 5
EnvironmentConventionalPollutants 6
ToxicPollutants 6
SpeciesandHabitat: 7
ToolsandTechniquesofEnvironmentalProtection 7
TechnologyForcingStandards 7
RegulationofExistingVersusNewEmitters 8
TaxesandSubsidies 9
FlexibleMarketIncentives 10
RiskAssessment 12
SummaryofContentsContents 13
CommonLawEnvironmentalRemedies 15
KeyDistinctions 15
Nuisance 16
Trespass 21
Negligence 21
StrictLiability 22
PublicTrustDoctrine 24
Preface 25
TheAvailabilityofCriminalSanctions 26
Acknowledgments 27
Chapter2．AdministrativeProcedureforEnvironmental 31
CommonLawChapter2．AdministrativeProcedureforEnvironmentalRegulation 31
RegulationWheretheActionIs 31
DrawingtheLine:TheNondelegationDoctrine 34
StayingWithintheTent:TheUltraViresDoctrine 36
TypesofAgencyActions 37
TheAdministrativeProcedureAct 37
InformalRulemaking 38
Adjudications 39
FormalRulemaking 39
StayingCurrent 40
HybridProcedures 40
Reg-Neg 41
TheProcessandJudicialReview 42
StandingtoSue 42
RipenessoftheAction 47
ExhaustionofAdministrativeRemedies 49
StandardsofJudicialReview 51
WhatCanBeAppealedtotheCourts 52
TheChoiceofStandard 53
RemediesandFees 58
FederalTortClaimsAct 58
EqualAccesstoJusticeAct 59
PublicAccesstoInformation 61
FreedomofInformationAct 61
FederalAdvisoryCommitteeAct 63
TheSunshineAct 64
Chapter3．TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct 67
TheStructureofNEPA 67
Chapter3．TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct 67
TheNEPAText 68
IntheBeginning:SubstanceandProcedure 69
TheEISProcess 73
TheAdministrativeProcess 73
TheThresholdDecision 74
MajorFederalAction 76
SignificantlyAffectingtheQualityofthe 78
HumanEnvironmentTheHumanEnvironment 81
JudicialReviewUnderNEPA 83
TimingandScopeoftheEIS 92
When:TimingoftheEIS 92
Actions:ProgramImpactStatements, 95
Who,What,andWhere:ScopeoftheEIS 95
Segmentation,andtheSmallHandleProblemAlternativestotheProposedAction 98
WhenAgain:TheSupplementalEIS 100
ImposeLiability:106and 107
AdequacyoftheEIS:AnalysisandAlternatives 107
ToAnalyzeorNottoAnalyze?EISUncertainty 108
AnalysisofSufficientEnvironmentalImpacts 108
Cost-BenefitAnalysis 109
andPossibleDelayWorst-CaseRiskAnalysis 109
TreatmentofAlternatives 110
No-ActionAlternative 111
PrimaryAlternatives 112
SecondaryAlternatives 112
MitigationMeasures 112
JudicialReviewofAdequacy:Substancevs. 113
StatutoryExemptions 114
ProcedureExemptionsfromNEPA 114
StatutoryConflicts:TheFlintRidgeCase 115
InternationalEnvironmentalEffects 116
NationalSecurity 116
Chapter4．ConstitutionalIssues:TheCommerceClauseand 127
Chapter4．ConstitutionalIssues:TheCommerceClauseand 127
RegulateInterstateCommerceDirectFederalRegulation 128
EnvironmentalPreemptionTheCommerceClauseandEnvironmentalRegulation 128
IssueOne:ThePlenaryPowerofCongressto 128
TheTenthAmendmentLimitationonFederal 129
DormantCommerceClauseGeographicallyDiscriminatoryLegislation 132
PowertoRegulateIssueTwo:RestrictionofStatePower—The 132
TheBalancingTestforStateLegislationThatIs 136
NotFaciallyDiscriminatorybutMayBurdenInterstateCommerceMarketParticipantAnalysis:WhenaStateDoes 139
NotRegulateFederalPreemptionofStateEnvironmentalRegulation 144
ExpressPreemption 145
ImpliedPreemption 145
SavingsClausesinEnvironmentalStatutes 149
EnvironmentalPreemptionChapter5．AirQualityRegulation 153
SourcesofAirPollution 153
TheBasicsofAirPollutionRegulation 153
Chapter5．AirQualityRegulation 153
AirPollutionRegulationPriorto1970 155
AmbientAirQuality:AreaRegulation 156
TheCleanAirActAmendmentsof1970 156
SourceControls:RegulationofIndividual 163
EmittersofPollutantsTheCleanAirActAmendmentsof1977 165
TheConceptofNonattainment:Geographic 166
StandardsExistingSources:RACT 167
NonattainmentAreas:NewSourceReview 168
(NSR)AttainmentAreas:PreventionofSignificant 170
Deterioration(PSD)SummaryofPermitting 172
TheCleanAirActAmendmentsof1990 177
AttainmentandMaintenanceofNAAQS:TitleI 177
FailuretoAchieveCompliance 177
Pollutant-SpecificRequirementsfor 179
EmissionControls 188
NonattainmentAreasRegulatingMobileSources:TitleⅡ 188
FuelPrograms 189
VehicleFleetPrograms 190
HazardousAirPollutants(NESHAPs):TitleⅢ 195
AcidDepositionControl:TitleⅣ 199
StratosphericOzoneProtection:TitleⅥ 202
EPAEnforcement 204
EnforcementProvisions:TitleⅦ 204
PrivilegedLegalInformation 206
CriminalPenalties 206
CitizenSuits 206
Chapter6．WaterPollution 213
Chapter6．WaterPollution 213
TheImportanceofWater 213
WaterQualityandPollution 215
PrimarySourcesofWaterPollution 215
PointSources 215
NonpointSources 217
TypesandMeasurementsofWaterPollution 217
BiologicalHazards 218
ChemicalHazards 218
EarlyWaterQualityandEffluentRegulation 221
TheRiverandHarborsActof1899 221
TwentiethCenturyPre-1972WaterPollution 222
ControlFederalWaterPollutionControlAct 224
TheStructure 224
Permits 225
Health-BasedStandards 228
Health-BasedandTechnology-BasedStandards 228
ToxicPollutants 228
Technology-BasedStandards 229
ExistingIndustrialSources 231
AmendmentsRegulatingDischarges 231
POTWs 234
NewIndustrialSources 235
NonpointSources 236
FDFVariances 238
Water-QualityStandards 243
Enforcement 245
TheSafeDrinkingWaterAct 247
AdditionalFederalWaterPollutionStatutes 247
TheCoastalZoneManagementAct 248
OtherWaterPollutionStatutes 248
TheOilPollutionAct 250
TheMarineProtectionAct 252
TheFishandWildlifeCoordinationAct 253
Chapter7．RightstoUseWater 255
Chapter7．RightstoUseWater 255
WhatAreRiparianWaterRights? 256
RiparianWaterRights:GeographicDetermination 256
SurfaceWaterRights 256
WaterTypesSubjecttoRiparianRights 257
RiparianLand 258
TheEvolutionoftheReasonableUseRule 260
TheEffectofNon-UseandPrescription 261
DevelopmentofPriorAppropriation 265
TheSystemofPriorAppropriation:FirstinTime 265
ObtainingPriorityRights:Appropriation 266
TheTransferorConveyanceofWaterRights 268
WaterThatMayBeAppropriated 268
AdministrativePermitSystems 269
DualSystemStates 269
ConstitutionalIssues 271
GroundwaterAllocation 275
RiparianRights 275
PriorAppropriationRights 276
FederalandTribalRights 277
Chapter8．TheManagementofHazardousandSolidWastes: 281
Chapter8．TheManagementofHazardousandSolidWastes: 281
RCRAWhatWasteIsRegulated? 282
RCRA sPurposeandGoals 282
TriggerOne:RCRARegulates Wastes 283
CriteriaforIdentifyingRegulatedHazardous 285
TriggerTwo:RCRARegulatesHazardousWastes 285
WastesHazardousWastesRegulatedUnderOther 287
StatutesareExcludedfromRCRARegulationOtherUnregulatedorMinimallyRegulated 290
WastesRegulationofHazardousWasteGenerators 294
RegulationofHazardousWasteTransporters 297
TSDFacilityRegulation 299
InterimStatusFacilities 300
PermanentPermittedStatusFacilities 301
RelationtoOtherRegulation 302
TheLandBan 304
StateandLocalGovernmentRegulation 306
WrestlingtheTiger:EnforcementbyAgenciesand 310
CitizensInformationGatheringbytheEPA:3007 310
Information 310
Inspections 311
MonitoringandTesting:3O13 312
CitizenSuits:7002 313
TheContribution 317
ImminentandSubstantialEndangermentActions: 317
TheActors 318
Remedies 319
Scienter 320
CriminalViolations 320
Penalties 322
RCRARemediesandBankruptcyPowers 323
UndergroundStorageTanks(UST) 324
SubsidiaryRCRARegulatoryPrograms 324
MedicalWasteTrackingActof1988 326
Conclusion 327
RCRAChapter9．TheSuperfund:HazardousSubstanceRemediation 331
Chapter9．TheSuperfund:HazardousSubstanceRemediation 331
HoWSuperfundIsDifferentfromOther 332
TheMechanicsofCERCLA 332
WastesandOtherSubstances 333
EnvironmentalLawsProspectiveorRetrospective 333
PersonsandPlaces 335
BasicStructure 336
CommonLawDistinctions 336
InformationandInspection:103and104 337
KeyCERCLADefinitions 338
Clean-upAuthority:104and105 340
TheSuperfund:111and112 344
The1986SARAAmendments 345
LiabilityAllocation:107 345
TheFourBasicTools 354
106OrdersandInjunctiveRemedies 354
EPAToolstoAccomplishPollutionAbatementand 354
107Litigation 355
104FriendlyPersuasion 356
StrictLiability 357
ProximateCause 357
Generators 358
OwnersandOperators 359
OfficerLiability 360
Transporters 361
BasicDefenses 362
AssignmentandAllocationofLiabilitytoPrivateParties 373
JointandSeveral,orSeveral,Liability? 374
DivisibilityoftheHarm 375
EquitableFactorsasApportionmentTools 376
PrivatePRP107Actions:TheKramerRule 377
UniformContributionAmongTortfeasorsAct 379
PrivatePartyAllocation:113 379
(UCATA)UniformComparativeFaultAct(UCFA) 380
StatutesofLimitationandReview 381
StrategicCERCLALitigationChoicesand 381
OutcomesSubstantiveDistinctions 381
MunicipalLiability 395
SituationsLiabilityStatusofUnconventional Persons 395
TheApplicationofCERCLALiabilityinSpecial 395
LiabilityofTrustees,Fiduciaries,andLenders 396
LiabilityofParentCorporationforActsofthe 399
SubsidiarySuccessorCorporationLiability 401
LiabilityofPersonsDuringTimesofWar 402
ClausesInterplaywithBankruptcyLaw 406
EffectofIndemnitiesand HoldHarmless 406
InterrelationshipofCERCLAandOtherLaw 406
ThePetroleumExclusion 407
NaturalResourceDamagesandEconomicLoss 408
LiensAgainstPRPProperty 409
InterlocutoryChallenge:The TakeItor 410
LeaveIt PropositionCriminalandCivilPenalties 412
InsuranceCompensationforContamination:Who 415
UltimatelyPays?TheDutytoDefend 416
TheRequirementofan Occurrence Within 417
thePolicyPeriodThe Trigger ofCoverage 417
ThePollutionExclusionClauseandIts 418
Interpretation: SuddenandAccidental PollutingEventsTheAbsolutePollutionExclusion 419
EquitableReliefvs.Damages:AreClean-up 420
LandUse,PropertyRights,andEnvironmentalLaw 423
CostsCoveredUndertheCGLPolicy?Chapter10．LocalEnvironmentalControl 423
Chapter10．LocalEnvironmentalControl 423
HistoryandEvolutionofZoningTechniques 424
ZoningandtheEnvironment 424
ZoningandCriticalEnvironmentalHabitats 424
LegalProblemswithZoning 429
ClusterZoning 430
EuclideanZoning 430
EnvironmentalZoningTechniques 430
TransferableDevelopmentRights(TDRs) 432
PlannedUnitDevelopment(PUD) 432
EnvironmentalOverlayDistricts 433
OpenSpaceZoning 433
RestrictionsonGrowth 434
Exactions 435
ConservationEasements,LandAcquisition,and 435
TaxationPerformanceStandards 436
RegulationofCriticalEnvironmentalResources 438
TheCoastalZone 438
Wetlands 441
OtherCriticalAreas 441
MunicipalLicensingforEnvironmentalGoals 444
TheMunicipalPowertoLicense 444
BuildingandOccupancyPermits 445
NonconformingUsesandTheirDestruction 446
BoardofHealthEnvironmentalAuthority 448
CommonLawLandUseControls 449
ThePublicTrustDoctrine 449
WasteandNuisance 451
LegalLimitationsonEnvironmentalLandUse 452
RegulationThe Takings ClauseLimitation 452
ProceduralLimitations 455
Chapter11．PreservationofNaturalAreas:WetlandsandOpenSpace 459
Chapter11．PreservationofNaturalAreas:WetlandsandOpen 459
SpaceWetlandsandWaterways 459
WhatIsaWetland? 460
RegulationofWetlands 463
TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA) 463
TheRiverandHarborsActof1899 463
EarlyRegulation 463
TheWildandScenicRiversAct 464
TheFederalWaterPollutionControlAct 464
Exemptions 465
TheExtentofJurisdictionUndertheClean 466
TheArmyCorpsofEngineers 470
WaterActJurisdictionalOverlapsinImplementing404 470
EPAVeto 472
AdministrativeReview 473
ReviewofEPAorCorps Decisions 473
RegulatoryTakings 474
CitizenSuitsUnder505 474
TheRoleoftheStatesinWetlandsProtection 477
StateWetlandsProtectionJurisdiction 478
StateControlofthe404Program 478
TheAgenciesinControl 481
ProtectedNaturalResourceAreas 481
WildernessAreas 484
ForestService 485
MineralExploitation 486
Grazing 487
Chapter12．EnergyandPower:TheUltimateResource 489
Chapter12．EnergyandPower:TheUltimateResource 489
TheRoleofElectricity 490
ElectricPowerandtheEnvironment 490
ElectricityasaSpecialResource 491
TheHistoryofPower 491
HighEnergy 491
EnergyEfficiency 496
PollutionfromPowerPlants 497
WhereDoesItComeFrom—WhereDoesItGo? 503
RegulationofPublicUtilities 503
HoWUtilityRatesAreSet 505
Federalvs.StateRegulation 509
TheFiledRateDoctrine 510
DeregulationofPowerGeneration 513
DeregulationofPower 513
PowerBidding 517
DeregulationofPowerandWheeling 517
RetailSalesandWheeling 518
OilandGasintheAmericanEconomy 523
OilandGasRights 523
EnvironmentalRepercussions 524
OwnershipandTransferofOilandGasRights 525
Chapter13．TheEndangeredSpeciesAct 531
KeyConcepts 531
Chapter13．TheEndangeredSpeciesAct 531
TheKeyNounsandAdjectives 533
TheKeyVerb: Take 534
ListingSpeciesandHabitat:4 535
ListingofSpeciesandConsultation 535
RequiredCooperationandConsultationforListed 537
Exemptionfrom7 538
WhatPrivateActionIsProhibited 542
Takings:9 542
IncidentalTakesAllowed 543
Chapter14．TSCAandFIFRA:RegulatingChemical 547
Chapter14．TSCAandFIFRA:RegulatingChemicalManufacture 547
ManufactureandDistributionTheToxicSubstancesControlAct 548
PartiesRegulated 549
WhatIsaChemicalSubstance? 549
TestingChemicalSubstances 550
ExistingSubstancesThatPresentan 551
RegulatingExistingChemicalSubstances 551
UnreasonableRiskofInjury ImminentlyHazardous ExistingSubstances 552
RegulatingNewChemicalSubstances 553
SignificantNewUses ofExistingSubstances 553
Enforcement 555
TheFederalInsecticide,Fungicide,andRodenticideAct 557
Registration 558
(FIFRA)PesticidesDefined 558
ExportofPesticides 560
Preemption 561
Chapter15．InternationalEnvironmentalLaw 565
andDistributionChapter15．InternationalEnvironmentalLaw 565
TheStructureandLimitationsofInternational 566
EnvironmentalLawTreaties 567
Custom 569
JudicialDecisionsandScholarlyWriting 570
GeneralPrinciplesofLaw 570
InternationalForumsforJustice 572
EquityinInternationalJustice 573
TheApplicationofInternationalEnvironmentalLaw 574
Trans-BoundaryHarm 575
JudicialDecisions 575
AirPollution 575
WaterPollufion 576
NuclearPowerandWeapons 577
Desertification 577
SpeciesandToxins 578
Glossary 581
Glossary 581
Abbreviations 597
Abbreviations 597
TableofCases 603
TableofCases 603
Index 609
Index 609
Amendmentsof 1972