1．Introducing Flex and Bison 1
Lexical Analysis and Parsing 1
Regular Expressions and Scanning 2
Our First Flex Program 2
Programs in Plain Flex 4
Putting Flex and Bison Together 5
The Scanner as Coroutine 6
Tokens and Values 7
Grammars and Parsing 9
BNF Grammars 10
Bison's Rule Input Language 11
Compiling Flex and Bison Programs Together 13
Ambiguous Grammars:Not Quite 14
Adding a Few More Rules 15
Flex and Bison vs.Handwritten Scanners and Parsers 16
Exercises 17
2．Using Flex 19
Regular Expressions 19
Regular Expression Examples 21
How Flex Handles Ambiguous Patterns 22
Context-Dependent Tokens 22
File I/O in Flex Scanners 23
Reading Several Files 24
The I/O Structure of a Flex Scanner 25
Input to a Flex Scanner 26
Flex Scanner Output 27
Start States and Nested Input Files 28
Symbol Tables and a Concordance Generator 32
Managing Symbol Tables 32
Using a Symbol Table 35
C Language Cross-Reference 38
Exercises 45
3．Using Bison 47
How a Bison Parser Marches Its Input 47
Shift/Reduce Parsing 48
What Bison's LALR(1) Parser Cannot Parse 50
A Bison Parser 51
Abstract Syntax Trees 51
An Improved Calculator That Creates ASTs 52
Literal Character Tokens 54
Building the AST Calculator 57
Shift/Reduce Conflicts and Operator Precedence 57
When Not to Use Precedence Rules 60
An Advanced Calculator 61
Advanced Calculator Parser 64
Calculator Statement Syntax 65
Calculator Expression Syntax 66
Top-Level Calculator Grammar 67
Basic Parser Error Recovery 67
The Advanced Calculator Lexer 68
Reserved Words 69
Building and Interpreting ASTs 70
Evaluating Functions in the Calculator 76
User-Defined Functions 76
Using the Advanced Calculator 78
Exercises 79
4．Parsing SQL 81
A Quick Overview of SQL 81
Relational Databases 82
Manipulating Relations 83
Three Ways to Use SQL 83
SQL to RPN 84
The Lexer 85
Scanning SQL Keywords 86
Scanning Numbers 90
Scanning Operators and Punctuation 91
Scanning Functions and Names 92
Comments and Miscellany 93
The Parser 94
The Top-Level Parsing Rules 96
SQL Expressions 96
Select Statements 101
Delete Statement 106
Insert and Replace Statements 107
Update Statement 110
Create Database 110
Create Table 111
User Variables 114
The Parser Routines 115
The Makefile for the SQL Parser 116
Exercises 117
5．A Reference for Flex Specifications 119
Structure of a Flex Specification 119
Definition Section 119
Rules Section 119
User Subroutines 120
BEGIN 120
C++ Scanners 121
Context Sensitivity 121
Left Context 121
Right Context 122
Definitions(Substitutions) 122
ECHO 123
Input Management 123
Stdio File Chaining 123
Input Buffers 123
Input from Strings 124
File Nesting 124
input() 124
YY_INPUT 125
Flex Library 125
Interactive and Batch Scanners 126
Line Numbers and yylineno 126
Literal Block 126
Multiple Lexers in One Program 127
Combined Lexers 127
Multiple Lexers 128
Options When Building a Scanner 128
Portability of Flex Lexers 129
Porting Generated C Lexers 129
Reentrant Scanners 130
Extra Data for Reentrant Scanners 130
Access to Reentrant Scanner Data 131
Reentrant Scanners,Nested Files,and Multiple Scanners 131
Using Reentrant Scanners with Bison 132
Regular Expression Syntax 132
Metacharacters 132
REJECT 135
Returning Values from yylex() 135
Start States 135
unput() 137
yyinput() yyunput() 137
yyleng 137
yyless() 137
yylex() and YY_DECL 138
yymore() 138
yyrestart() 139
yy_scan_string and yy_scan_buffer 139
YY_USER_ACTION 139
yywrap() 139
6．A Reference for Bison Specifications 141
Structure of a Bison Grammar 141
Symbols 141
Definition Section 142
Rules Section 142
User Subroutines Section 142
Actions 142
Embedded Actions 143
Symbol Types for Embedded Actions 144
Ambiguity and Conflicts 144
Types of Conflicts 144
Shift/Reduce Conflicts 144
Reduce/Reduce Conflicts 145
%expect 145
GLR Parsers 145
Bugs in Bison Programs 146
Infinite Recursion 146
Interchanging Precedence 146
Embedded Actions 146
C++ Parsers 147
%code Blocks 147
End Marker 147
Error Token and Error Recovery 147
%destructor 148
Inherited Attributes($0) 148
Symbol Types for Inherited Attributes 149
%initial-action 149
Lexical Feedback 150
Literal Block 151
Literal Tokens 151
Locations 152
%parse-param 152
Portability of Bison Parsers 153
Porting Bison Grammars 153
Porting Generated C Parsers 153
Libraries 153
Character Codes 153
Precedence and Associativity Declarations 154
Precedence 154
Associativity 154
Precedence Declarations 154
Using Precedence and Associativity to Resolve Conflicts 155
Typical Uses of Precedence 155
Recursive Rules 155
Left and Right Recursion 156
Rules 157
Special Characters 158
%start Declaration 159
Symbol Values 160
Declaring Symbol Types 160
Explicit Symbol Types 160
Tokens 161
Token Numbers 161
Token Values 161
%type Declaration 162
%union Declaration 163
Variant and Multiple Grammars 163
Combined Parsers 163
Multiple Parsers 165
Using %name-prefix or the-p Flag 165
Lexers for Multiple Parsers 165
Pure Parsers 165
y.output Files 166
Bison Library 167
main() 167
yyerror() 167
YYABORT 168
YYACCEPT 168
YYBACKUP 168
yyclearin 169
yydebug and YYDEBUG 169
YYDEBUG 169
yydebug 169
yyerrok 169
YYERROR 170
yyerror() 170
yyparse() 171
YYRECOVERING() 171
7．Ambiguitiesand Conflicts 173
The Pointer Model and Conflicts 173
Kinds of Conflicts 175
Parser States 176
Contents of name.output 178
Reduce/Reduce Conflicts 178
Shift/Reduce Conflicts 180
Review of Conflicts in name.output 182
Common Examples of Conflicts 183
Expression Grammars 183
IF/THEN/ELSE 185
Nested List Grammar 186
How Do You Fix the Conflict? 187
IF/THEN/ELSE(Shift/Reduce) 188
Loop Within a Loop(Shift/Reduce) 190
Expression Precedence(Shift/Reduce) 191
Limited Lookahead(Shift/Reduce or Reduce/Reduce) 191
Overlap of Alternatives(Reduce/Reduce) 192
Summary 194
Exercises 194
8．Error Reporting and Recovery 197
Error Reporting 197
Locations 199
Adding Locations to the Parser 200
Adding Locations to the Lexer 201
More Sophisticated Locations with Filenames 202
Error Recovery 204
Bison Error Recovery 205
Freeing Discarded Symbols 206
Error Recovery in Interactive Parsers 206
Where to Put Error Tokens 207
Compiler Error Recovery 208
Exercises 208
9．Advanced Flexand Bison 209
Pure Scanners and Parsers 209
Pure Scanners in Flex 210
Pure Parsers in Bison 212
Using Pure Scanners and Parsers Together 213
A Reentrant Calculator 214
GLR Parsing 230
GLR Version of the SQL Parser 231
C++ Parsers 234
A C++ Calculator 235
C++ Parser Naming 235
A C++ Parser 236
Interfacing a Scanner with a C++ Parser 239
Should You Write Your Parser in C++? 241
Exercises 241
Appendix:SQL Parser Grammar and Cross-Reference 243
Glossary 259
Index 263