1 Radio Frequency Amplifiers 1
Answers to Selected Problems 1
Appendices 1
Index 1
Appendix A Introducing the Impulse Function 2
Appendix B Filter Attenuation Curves 4
1-1 Impedance Review 5
Series Circuit Impedance 6
1-2 Series Resonance 7
1-3 Circuit Qand Bandwidth 8
1-4 Parallel Resonance 9
Appendix C Feedback Analysis for a Transconductance Amplifier 10
Appendix D Derivation of Frequency Response for PLLs 12
Nonideal Parallel Resonant Circuits 12
1-5 Small-Signal RF Amplifier Analysis 14
Gain in Decibels 16
Appendix E Communications Software 16
1-6 Small-signal RF Amplifier Design 18
1-7 Coupling Tuned Circuits 22
Appendix F Abbreviations and Acronyms 22
1-8 Nonideal Transformer Coupling 25
Transformer Loading 28
Measuring the Coupling Coefficient 31
1-9 Double-Tuned Circuits 31
Introduction 35
1-10 Laplace Transforms 35
Use of the Table of Transform Pairs 39
Circuit Impedance and the Transfer Function 40
Problems 41
1-11 Computer Analysis 45
2 Oscillators 54
2-1 Hartley Oscillator Circuit Analysis 57
2-2 Colpitts Oscillator 60
2-3 Clapp Oscillator 63
2-4 Tuned-Input/Tuned-Output Oscillator 64
RC Phase-Shift Oscillator 65
2-5 Untuned Oscillators 65
Wien Bridge Oscillator 66
Astable Multivibrator 67
2-6 Oscillator Stability and Spectral Purity 68
Temperature Stability of Oscillators 69
Temperature Coefficient 69
2-7 Crystals and Crystal Oscillators 70
Improving the Frequency Stability of Oscillators 70
Crystal Cuts(Y,AT,and BT) 71
Crystal Oscillators 72
Equivalent Circuit,Impedance,and Q 72
Harmonic Operation 75
2-8 Pierce Crystal Oscillator 75
Problems 76
2-9 Computer Analysis 80
3 Signal Spectra 83
3-1 Fourier Series and Signal Analysis 84
Even and Odd Functions 86
Fourier Series:Complex Exponential Form 90
Fourier Series of Other Waveforms 91
3-2 Fourier Transforms 94
3-3 Effect of Filters on Signals 97
3-4 Harmonic and Phase Distortion 100
Total Harmonic Distortion 101
3-5 Nondeterministic Signals 101
Problems 102
3-6 Computer Analysis 105
4 Elements of Noise 111
4-1 System Noise Sources 112
Thermal Noise 112
Shot Noise 113
Burst Noise 114
Flicker(1/f)Noise 114
4-2 Noise Spectral Density and Circuit Calculations 115
4-4 System Noise Figure 119
4-3 Noise and Feedback 119
4-5 Noise Temperature 120
4-6 Noise Bandwidth 121
4-7 Correlation and Noise 123
Problems 127
4-8 Computer Analysis 129
5 Modulation and Amplitude-Modulation Systems 133
5-1 Communications Systems 134
5-2 Voice Transmission and Multiplexing 135
5-3 Modulation 136
Amplitude Modulation 136
Modulation Index 137
5-4 AM Spectrum and Bandwidth 139
5-5 Power in an AM Signal 141
5-6 Nonsinusoidal Modulation Signals 142
5-7 AM Demodulation 144
Diagonal Clipping Distortion 146
Negative Peak Clipping 147
5-8 AM Receiver Systems 148
Superheterodyne Receiver Systems 148
5-9 Superheterodyne Receivers for AM 149
Choice of IF Frequency and Image Response 150
Detector Power Requirement 151
5-10 Receiver Gain and Sensitivity 151
5-11 Power Level in dBm and dBW 152
5-12 AGC and Dynamic Range 154
Delayed AGC 156
5-13 Receiver Noise 157
5-15 Derivation of the Noise Figure Equation 158
5-14 Signal-to-Noise Ratio(S/N) 158
5-16 Bandwidth Improvement 160
5-17 Bandwidth Narrowing 163
Problems 163
5-18 Computer Analysis 166
6 Transmitter Circuits 170
6-1 Power Amplifiers 171
Triode Vacuum Tube 172
Class C Power Amplifier 173
Power and Efficiency 176
6-2 Neutralization 177
6-3 Integrated Circuit,RF Power Amplifiers 178
6-4 Impedance-Matching Networks 184
Pi-Matching Network 187
Transistor and Vacuum-Tube Matching Network Equations 190
6-5 AM Modulator Circuits 193
Solid-State Modulator 193
Vacuum-Tube AM Modulator 194
Grid Modulation 196
Problems 197
6-6 Computer Analysis 201
7 Receiver Circuits 204
7-1 Low-Noise Amplifiers(LNAs) 205
Amplifier Dynamic Range 206
Third-Order Intercept Point 207
7-2 Mixers 208
General Nonlinearity 209
Other Frequency Converters 211
Switching or Sampling Mixers 211
Mixer Circuit Design 212
Mixing Modulated Signals 216
7-3 Tuning the Standard Broadcast Receiver 217
7-4 Filter Requirements for Interference Control and Selectivity 219
7-5 Filter Circuit Design 225
Determining the Filter Impedance Level 228
Low-Pass Filter Component Values 229
Bandpass Design 230
7-6 IF Amplifiers 234
7-7 AGC Circuits 240
7-8 The Audio System 244
Class B Push-Pull 244
7-9 Distortion and Feedback 247
Voltage-Sampled Shunt Feedback 250
Voltage-Sampled Series Feedback 251
Frequency Effects and Stability with Feedback 253
Problems 258
Appendix 7A:Class A Power Amplifier Design Example 263
7-10 Computer Analysis 265
8 Sideband Systems 283
8-1 Vestigial Sideband 284
8-2 Double Sideband/Suppressed Carrier 285
8-3 Balanced Modulator 286
8-4 Product Detector 293
The Sideband-Filter Method 294
8-6 Single Sideband/Suppressed Carrier 294
The Phase Method of SSB-SC Generation 296
Single-Sideband Receiver 298
8-7 Frequency-Division Multiplexing in Telephone Systems 301
8-8 Quadrature Multiplexing 304
Problems 308
8-10 Computer Analysis 310
9 Frequency and Phase Modulation 312
9-1 Frequency Modulation 312
Modulation Index 313
Sidebands and Spectrum 316
Wideband FM 318
Information Bandwidth and Power 321
9-2 Phase Modulation 323
Diode Modulator for PM 324
Derivation of Modulator Equations 327
Determining the Limits of Linearity 330
Wideband PM 331
9-3 Advantages of PM over FM 332
Demodulation of PM 332
9-4 FM Transmitter Circuits 333
Voltage-Controlled Oscillators(VCOs) 334
Integrated Circuit VCO 336
FM from PM 342
Reactance Modulator for FM 343
Reactance Modulator Sensitivity 344
Frequency Multipliers 345
9-5 Frequency Stability and AFC 346
FM Demodulators 351
PLL Demodulator 351
9-6 FM Receivers 351
Slope Detection/FM Discriminator 352
Foster-Seeley Phase-Shift Discriminator 354
Ratio Detector 357
Quadrature FM Detectors 358
IF Amplifiers and Limiters 360
9-7 Noise Performance 364
Preemphasis for FM 366
9-8 Stereo FM 367
Problems 370
9-9 Computer Analysis 374
10 Phase-Locked Loops 381
10-1 Loop Components 383
The Phase Detector 383
Phase Detector Gain 385
Digital Phase(Timing)Comparators 387
Amplifiers 387
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator(VCO) 388
10-2 Basic Loop Behavior 389
Locking the Loop 389
Acquisition 389
Locked Loop:The Tracking Mode 390
Loop Gain and Static Phase Error 390
Hold-In Range 391
Frequency Response of Individual Loop Components 393
10-3 Loop Frequency Response and Bandwidth 393
8-5 Phase Distortion in the Demodulation of Suppressed-Carrier Systems 393
PLL System Response 395
Closed-Loop Frequency Response and Bandwidth 397
10-4 FM and FSK Applications of PLLs 399
10-5 Noise 400
10-6 Improving Loop Response 401
Determining Loop Stability and Dynamic Behavior Using the Bode Plot 402
Phase Margin 403
Damping and Undamped Natural Frequency 405
Rise in Loop Frequency Response 407
Switching and Settling Time 409
Lead-Lag Compensation 410
10-7 Phase-Locked Loop Compensation 410
Direct Frequency Synthesizers 417
10-8 Frequency Synthesizers 417
Phase-Locked Synthesizers 419
Translation Loops and Multiple-Loop Synthesizers 422
10-9 Coherent Receivers:Phase-Locked Loop,Acquisition,and Pull-In Frequency Range 431
Problems 434
10-10 Computer Analysis 439
11 Pulse and Digital Modulation 443
11-1 Sampled Data and the Sampling Theorem 444
11-2 Pulse Amplitude Modulation--Natural and Flat-Top Sampling 447
Time-Division Multiplexing 449
Intersymbol Interference(ISI) 451
11-3 Pulse Width and Pulse Position Modulation(PWM ＆ PPM) 453
Demodulation 454
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) 456
11-4 Digital Modulation 456
Multiplexing PCM Channels 457
Bandwidth Requirements 458
Delta Modulation(DM) 459
11-5 Quantization Noise 466
11-6 Qualitative Comparisons of Pulse and Digital Modulation Systems 467
Problems 467
11-7 Computer Analysis 470
12 Digital Communication Concepts 472
12-1 Digital Information 473
Coding 473
Coding Efficiency 474
12-2 Information Transfer Rate 474
12-3 Signaling(Baud)Rate 475
12-4 System Capacity 477
12-5 Bandwidth Considerations 480
Minimum Possible Bandwidth 480
Digital Transmission Formats 483
Pulse Shaping for Minimizing Bandwidth and Pulse Distortion 483
12-6 Power in Digital Signals 484
12-7 PCM System Analysis 486
Resolution and Dynamic Range 488
Digitizing/Encoding 488
Signal-to-Quantization Noise Ratio 491
Quantization Noise 491
Companding 492
Digital-to-Analog Converters(DACs) 496
12-8 PCM Telephone Circuitry 496
Analog-to-Digital(A/D)Converters 498
Telephone Dialing Tones—Synthesizing and Decoding 502
Codec 502
Problems 504
12-9 Computer Analysis 506
13 Data Communication Techniques 516
13-1 Standard Digital Codes 517
Codes and Error Control Techniques 520
Reed-Solomon Codes 522
13-2 Error Detection 525
Error Detecting and Correcting 527
13-3 Noise and Data Errors 532
13-4 Intercomputer Communications 535
13-5 Serial-Transmission Interfacing 536
UART for Asynchronous Communication 537
Cyclic Redundancy Checks 538
The 20-mA Loop—Teleprinters 540
EIA and CCITT Voltage Interfacing of Computer Devices 542
Frequency-Shift Key(FSK)Modems 546
13-6 Carrier Systems and Modems 546
Modems 546
Automatic Retransmission Request(ARQ) 547
A Full-Duplex,Two-Wire Line,FSK Modem 548
Continuous-Phase FSK and MSK 551
13-7 Synchronous Communication Techniques 552
Data Networks and Synchronous Transmission Protocols 553
Point-to-Point 553
Switched Networks—Synchronous Transmissions 554
Multipoint Lines 554
Packet Switching 554
Binary Synchronous Communications(Bisync) 557
Synchronous Protocols 557
Bit-Oriented Protocols:SDLC,HDLC,and X.25 559
13-8 Open System Interconnect and ISDN 562
Open System Interconnections(OSI) 562
Integrated Services Digital Network(ISDN) 563
Asynchronous Transfer Mode(ATM) 565
Problems 568
13-9 Computer Analysis 571
14 Transmission Lines and Waveguides 576
14-1 Transmission Lines 577
TEM Wave Propagation 578
Transients and Reflections 579
14-2 Sinusoidal Signals as Traveling Waves 585
Sinusoidal Signal Reflections and Standing Waves 586
Slotted Line and VSWR 588
14-3 The Smith Chart 589
14-4 Impedance-Matching Techniques 592
14-5 S-Parameters 595
14-6 Microstrip Amplifier Design 601
Microstrip Design 601
14-7 Waveguides 608
Waveguide Modes 609
Boundary Conditions 609
Coupling to Waveguides 612
Use of Smith Chart with Waveguide Transmissions 613
14-8 Directional Couplers 615
Problems 617
14-9 Computer Analysis 620
15 Antennas and Radiowave Propagation 625
15-1 Antenna Radiation 626
Polarization 627
Radiation Pattern and Power Density 628
15-3 Dipole(Hertz)Antenna 629
15-2 Received Power and Electric Field Strength 629
15-4 Directivity,Gain,and Aperture 630
Antenna Gain(dBi) 630
15-6 The Grounded Vertical(Marconi)Antenna 631
15-5 Beamwidth 631
Counterpoise 633
15-7 Television Antennas and Arrays 633
15-8 The Folded Dipole 634
Yagi-Uda 635
15-9 Turnstiles,Yagis,and Other Arrays 635
Log-Periodic Dipole Array 637
15-10 Loop Antennas 639
15-11 Parabolic Dish Antennas 640
Conical Horn Antennas 642
15-12 Wave Propagation Through Space 644
Refraction 644
Diffraction 645
HF Radio Waves 645
Long-Distance HF Radio Transmission 646
The Ionosphere 646
The Skip Zone 647
Multipath Distortion 648
15-13 Power Loss in Space 648
Free-Space Attenuation and Atmospheric Absorption 649
Fading and Fade Margin 650
Problems 651
15-14 Computer Analysis 653
16 Basic Television 656
16-1 Overview:Studio to Viewer 657
16-2 Frequency Allocations 658
16-3 TV Cameras 659
16-4 The Scan Raster and Synchronizing Signals 660
16-5 Video Bandwidth and Resolution 662
16-6 Transmitted Video and Audio Signals 662
16-7 Black-and-White TV Receivers 663
Tuner,Ifs,and Detectors 663
Gated AGC 663
Video Amplifiers and CRT Bias 666
Sync Separator 667
Vertical Deflection and Sync 668
Horizontal Deflection and CRT High Voltage 670
Phase-Locked Horizontal Sync 672
16-8 Color Television 674
Chroma Signals 675
Chroma I and Q Signals 676
Color TV Receiver Circuits 678
16-9 High-Definition Television 681
Video Compression Techniques 685
Problems 689
17 Digital Radio and Space Communication 691
Phase-Shift Key(PSK) 693
17-1 Modems and Digital Modulation Techniques 693
Demodulator 696
Differential PSK 697
Beyond Binary 698
QPSK 699
QPSK Demodulation 703
Quadrature Demodulation 703
Carrier Recovery 705
Bit Timing Recovery 706
Modems with Higher than Four-Level PSK and QAM 708
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM) 709
17-2 Noise and Error Rate Performance 710
Eb/NO 712
Bandwidth Requirements for Digital Radio 713
17-3 Space and Frequency Diversity 714
17-4 System Gain,Power,and Noise Budgets 715
Received Signal Power and System Gain 716
System Threshold 718
G/T 719
Satellite Systems 720
17-5 Satellite Access for Global Networking 720
Multiple-Access Techniques 723
Frequency-Division Multiple Access(FDMA) 724
TDMA 726
FDMA with DAMA 726
CDMA/Spread Spectrum 728
17-6 Spread Spectrum Systems 730
Direct-Sequence 731
Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum 735
17-7 Multiple Access Cellular Systems 737
Cellular Radio 738
Cellular Radio Propagation 741
Other Operational Considerations 743
Transmission of Digital Signals 744
Eb/No and Probability of Data Errors 747
17-8 Digital Modulation in Wireless Cellular and Personal Communication Systems 749
Intersymbol Interference(ISI) 750
Modulator/Demodulator Circuit Impairments 752
Minimum-Shift Key Modulation 754
π/4-DQPSK 756
17-9 RF Receiver and Transmitter System Considerations 760
Receivers 761
The Front End 763
Receiver Sensitivity 764
Image-Rejection Mixer 766
Local Oscillator Phase Noise 768
Reciprocal Mixing 770
Intermodulation Distortion and Dynamic Range 772
Transmitters 774
Modulation Phase/Amplitude Imbalance 776
Threshold and Coding Gain 779
17-10 RF Integrated Circuits and Transceivers for Digital Communications 780
AMPS and TDMA 786
Spread Spectrum WLAN 793
CDMA Transceiver 797
Digital Receiver 2000 799
Problems 802
8-9 Costas Loop for Suppressed-Carrier Demodulation 806
17-11 Computer Analysis 806
18 Fiber-Optic Communication 811
18-1 The Optical Fiber Communication Link 812
18-2 Light 813
Critical Angle and Reflections 814
18-3 Light Propagation in Glass Fibers 814
Numerical Aperture and Reflectance 815
Optical Fiber Waveguides 816
Bandwidth-Distance Product 818
Dispersion and Pulse Spreading 819
Maximum Allowable Data Rate 821
Fiber Power Losses 822
Communication LEDs 825
18-4 Transmitter Devices and Circuits 825
Injection Lasers 826
Direct Modulation Transmitters 827
External Modulators 829
Fiber Amplifiers and Dispersion-Shifted Fiber 830
18-5 Receiver Devices and Circuits 831
PIN Photodiodes 831
Photodiode Light Detectors 831
Receiver Circuits 832
Avalanche Photodiodes(APD) 832
Fiber Technology 834
18-6 Transmission Technology 834
Connectors,Splices,and Couplers 836
18-7 Fiber-Optic Data-Link Analysis 840
Analog Link Analysis 840
Bandwidth/Data Rate 844
Power Budget 846
International Networking 847
18-8 Fiber-Optic Communication Applications 847
Local Area Networking 848
Broadband RF Signals on CATV Fiber-Optic Links 852
Problems 855
18-9 Computer Analysis 859