Introduction 1
PART ONE SYNTAX AS A LINGUISTIC SYSTEM 4
Chapter 1 Sentence Elements vs. Word Classes 4
1.1 Sentence Elements 4
1.1.1 Subject and predicate 4
1.1.2 SPOCAd 5
1.1.3 Element realization types 14
1.2 Word Classes 16
1.2.1 Nouns 19
1.2.2 Verbs 28
1.2.3 Adjectives 36
1.2.5 Determiners 38
1.2.4 Adverbs 38
1.3 Element Order 43
1.3.1 Inverted word order 43
1.3.2 Word order within the noun phrase 47
1.3.3 Position and sequence of the adverbials 50
Chapter 2 Sentence Structures 56
2.1 The Nature of English Sentence(1)：SP Construction 56
2.2 Operator，Auxiliary，and Predication 58
2.3 Sentence Constituents or Elements 59
2.3.1 Complements and objects 60
2.3.2 Phrases 60
2.3.3 Clauses 68
2.4 Sentence Types 73
2.4.1 Sentence types(1)：complete and incomplete 73
2.4.2 Sentence types(2)：major and minor 74
2.4.3 Sentence types(3)：declarative，interrogative，imperative，and exclamatory 81
2.4.4 Sentence types(4)：statements，questions，directives，and exclamations 82
2.4.5 Sentence types(5)：loose，periodic，and balanced 83
2.4.6 Sentence types(6)：regular and irregular 84
2.4.7 Sentence types(7)：active and passive 88
2.5 The Nature of English Sentence(2)：SP Embedment，Full or Partial 90
2.5.1 Classification of embedded sentences 93
2.5.2 Analysis of embedded sentences 94
Chapter 3 Sentence Patterns 102
3.1 Patterns Introduced by There[Unstressed] 106
3.2 Patterns Containing“S+Lv+Cs” 110
3.3 Intransitive Verb Patterns 113
3.4 Patterns Containing“S+Vi+Cs” 113
3.5 Patterns Containing Complex Subjects 116
3.6 Patterns Containing“SPO” 117
3.7 Patterns Containing“SPOiOd” 122
3.8 Patterns Containing“SPOCo” 124
3.9 Patterns Containing Continuous Tenses and Future Forms 128
3.10 Some Important Patterns Containing Modal Verbs 130
3.11 Adjective Patterns 132
3.12 Patterns Introduced by It 136
3.13 Patterns of Co-ordination 143
3.14 Patterns Containing Attributive Postmodifiers 147
3.15 Patterns Containing Restrictive Attributive Clauses 149
3.16 Relative Clause as Attribute 150
3.17 Relative Clause as Adverbial or Co-ordinate Clause 151
3.18 Patterns Containing Appositive That-clauses 153
3.19 Patterns Containing What-clauses 155
3.20 Patterns Containing Wh-ever-words 156
3.21 Patterns Containing Adverbial Clauses or Adverbial Phrases 157
3.22 More Structures Containing Adverbial Phrases 176
3.23 Patterns Containing Disjuncts 181
3.24 Patterns Containing Conjuncts 183
3.25 Imperative Sentence Patterns 185
3.26 Exclamatory Sentence Patterns 186
3.27 Inversion and Emphatic Sentence Patterns 187
3.28 Elliptical Sentence Patterns 192
3.29 Phrasal Captions to Pictures 194
3.30 Block Language 197
Appendix：A Hundred Typical Questions 199
4.1.1 Changing a declarative sentence 205
4.1 Direct Speech to Indirect Speech，and Vice Versa 205
Chapter 4 Pattern Transformation 205
4.1.2 Changing an interrogative sentence 208
4.1.3 Changing an imperative sentence 209
4.1.4 Changing an exclamatory sentence 209
4.2 Combining Simple Sentences into a Simple Sentence 210
4.2.1 Using prepositional phrases，with a noun or gerund as its object 210
4.2.2 Using participles 210
4.2.3 Using participles in the absolute construction 211
4.2.4 Using infinitives 211
4.2.5 Using nouns in apposition 211
4.2.6 Using conjunctions 212
4.3 Combining Simple Sentences into a Compound Sentence by Using Conjunctions 212
4.4.3 Using a complex sentence with an adverbial clause 213
4.4.2 Using a complex sentence with a relative clause 213
4.4 Combining Simple Sentences into a Complex Sentence or Mixed Sentence 213
4.4.1 Using a complex sentence with a noun clause 213
4.4.4 Combining simple sentences into a mixed sentence 214
4.5 Transforming a Simple Sentence into a Compound Sentence，or Vice Versa 214
4.5.1 Expanding a participle phrase 214
4.5.2 Expanding a prepositional construction 214
4.5.3 Expanding an infinitive phrase into a clause 215
4.6 Transforming a Simple Sentence into a Complex Sentence 216
4.6.1 Expanding a noun or a noun equivalent into a noun clause 216
4.6.2 Expanding an adjective or an adjective phrase into a relative clause 217
4.6.3 Expanding an adverbial phrase into an adverbial clause 218
4.7.1 Using an adverbial clause 219
4.7.2 Using a relative clause 219
4.7 Transforming a Compound Sentence into a Complex Sentence 219
4.7.3 Using a noun clause 220
4.8 Transforming a Complex Sentence into a Compound Sentence by Using Conjunctions 220
4.9 Transforming Two Simple Sentences or a Compound Sentence or a Complex Sentence into a Simple Sentence by Using Nominalization 221
PART TWO SYNTAX AS THE PIVOT OF LANGUAGE CATEGORIES 223
Chapter 5 Syntax and Phonology 223
5.1 Introduction 223
5.1.1 Syllable and stress 223
5.1.2 Tone and intonation 224
5.2 Stress 225
5.3 Rhythm 226
5.4 Intonation 227
5.4.1 The five tones 227
5.4.2 Intonation 229
5.4.3 Syntactic functions of intonation 230
5.5 Tone Unit 234
5.5.1 Division of tone units 234
5.5.2 Structure of the tone unit 235
5.6 Choice of the Nucleus 236
5.6.1 Contrastive focus 237
5.6.2 Given and new information 239
5.6.3 Changes of word order affecting the choice of the nucleus 240
5.7 Intonation Patterns of Various Types of Sentences 244
5.7.1 Neutral intonation patterns 245
5.7.2 Intonation patterns according to the speaker’s attitude 248
6.1 Free Phrases 252
Chapter 6 Syntax and Vocabulary 252
6.1.1 Noun phrases 253
6.1.2 Adjective phrases and the sequence of attributive adjectives 255
6.2 Conventionalized Compound Phrases 256
6.2.1 Noun compounds 257
6.2.2 Adjective compounds 258
6.3 Collocations 259
6.3.1 Collocations with a noun head 260
6.3.2 Collocations with a verb head—verb+preposition/prepositional phrase 265
6.3.3 Collocations with an adjective head—adjective+ preposition 267
6.4 Set Expressions 268
6.4.1 Poly words 269
6.4.2 Institutional expressions 270
6.4.3 Phrasal constraints 270
6.4.4 Sentence builders 271
6.5 Idioms 272
6.5.1 Adjective+noun 272
6.5.2 Noun+prepositional phrase 273
6.5.3 Verb+noun 275
6.5.4 Phrasal verbs 276
6.5.5 Verb+prepositional phrase 280
6.5.6 Adjective+prepositional phrase 281
6.5.7 Prepositional phrases 282
Chapter 7 Syntax and Discourse 284
7.1 Introduction 284
7.2 Grammatical Devices 290
7.2.1 Time and place definers 290
7.2.2 Logical connectors 294
7.2.3 Ellipsis 308
7.2.4 Parallelism 310
7.2.5 Reference 312
7.2.6 Substitution 316
7.3 Lexical Cohesion 318
7.3.1 Reiteration 319
7.3.2 Collocation 320
7.4 Thematic and Information Structures 321
7.4.1 Thematic progression 322
7.4.2 Information structure 324
PART THREE SYNTAX IN ACTON 326
Chapter 8 Syntax and Stylistic Effects 326
8.1 Sentence Complexity 327
8.1.1 Minor sentences 327
8.1.2 Major sentences：simple and multiple sentences 330
8.2 Sentence Length 337
8.2.1 Short sentences 337
8.2.2 Long sentences 342
8.2.3 Variations of sentence length 347
8.3 Periodic and Loose Sentences 349
8.3.1 Periodic sentences 350
8.3.2 Loose sentences 352
8.4 Elliptical Sentences 355
8.5 Active and Passive Sentences 358
8.6 Word Order，Emphasis，Cohesion and Balance 362
8.6.1 End-focus and end-weight 362
8.6.2 Fronting and postponement 364
8.6.3 Repetition 368
8.6.4 Syntactic schemes of balance：parallelism，antithesis and symmetry 373
8.7 Flexibility of Sentence Management 380
Chapter 9 Syntax and Translation 382
9.1 Sentence-for-sentence Translation 382
9.2 The Core and Subordination of a Sentence 385
9.2.1 From Chinese into English 386
9.2.2 From English into Chinese 387
9.3 The Form，Function and Position of Subordinate Elements 388
9.3.1 The form and function of subordinate elements 388
9.3.2 Position of the subordinate elements 389
9.4 Comparison between Major English and Chinese Sentence Structures 392
9.4.1 Differences in word order between English and Chinese 393
9.4.2 “Subject”vs.“Topic” 395
9.5.1 Division 397
9.5 Division or Combination 397
9.5.2 Combination 399
9.6 Amplification or Reduction 401
9.6.1 Amplification 401
9.6.2 Reduction 404
9.7 Affirmative or Negative Approach 406
9.7.1 Affirmative expressions rendered into negative expressions in E-C translation 407
9.7.2 Negative expressions rendered into affirmative expressions in E-C translation 408
9.7.3 Affirmative expressions rendered into negative expressions in C-E translation 408
9.7.4 Negative expressions rendered into affirmative expressions in C-E translation 409
9.8 Active or Passive 409
9.8.1 Passive English structure rendered into active Chinese structure 411
9.8.2 Active English structure rendered into passive Chinese structure 411
9.8.3 Active Chinese structure rendered into passive English structure 412
PART FOUR 413
Chapter 10 Theoretical Explorations 413
10.1 Traditional Approach 413
10.1.1 Historical background 413
10.1.2 Some syntactic characteristics of traditional grammar 416
10.2 The Structural Approach 420
10.2.1 F.de Saussure 420
10.2.2 American structuralism 422
10.3 The Generative-transformational Approach 428
10.3.1 The classical theory 430
10.3.2 Standard theory 437
10.3.3 Extended standard theory 444
Conclusion 457
Bibliography 458