1.1.1.The water molecule, 1
ContentsUNITS AND ABBREVIATIONSPHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES1.1.Physical properties of water, 1
1.1.2.The isotopic composition of water, 3
1.1.3.Physical properties of pure water, 12
Physical states and latent heats of water 13,Density 16,Compressibility 16,Coefficient of cubic expansion 17,Viscosity 18,Surface tension 18
1.1.4 Electrolytic dissociation,solubility product,pH value,specific electrical conductance, 18
1.2.Solutions, 19
1.2.1.Solubility of gases, 19
1.2.2.Solubility of solids and liquids, 22
Colloidal solutions 26,Solubility of organic substances 27
1.2.3.1.Ionic activity, 29
1.2.3.2.Solubility in aqueous solutions, 44
1.2.3.2.1.Carbonate-carbon dioxide equilibria, 45
Calcium carbonate-carbon dioxide equilibrium, 45
1.2.3.3.Importance of pH with regard to solubility, 59
CaCO3 precipitation,Influence of pressure on carbonate,equilibrium 58,Solubility of other carbonates, 59
1.2.3.4.Importance of redox potential with regard to solubility. 61
1.2.3.5.Stability field diagrams to show dependence of solubility on ph and Eh, 64
1.2.4.Specific electrical conductance of aqueous solutions, 70
2 GEOCHEMICAL PROCESSES AND WATER 73
2.1.Dissolution,hydrolysis,and precipitation, 73
Role of contract surface and contact time between water and rock,and temperature 74,Dissolution of salts 75,Hydrolysis 75,Changes in water quality caused by dissolution and precipitation 78,Dependence of dissolution and precipitation on climat 86
1.2.3.Factors causing solublity changes, 92
Ion exchange 88,Exchange capacity and ion species 91,Exchange rates 92,Influence of temperature 92,Exchange capacity and pH value of the solution 92,Ion selectivity 92,Adsorption processes in the unsaturated zone 103,Exchange processes in the 105
2.3.Oxidation and reduction, 107
2.4.Gas exchange between groundwater and atmosphere, 114
2.5.Biological processes, 119
Microbial metabolism 119,Sulfur and sulfur compounds 123,Nitrogen compounds 125,Iron and manganese 126,Organic substances 127,Control of microbiological activity by poisons 130,Organisms occurring in groundwater 134,Influence of higher plants o 135
2.6.Man-made factors, 139
Man-made pollution of groundwater 139,Pollution by gases 143,Pollution by liquids 145,Pollution by solids 146,Effect of sewage and wastewater 146,Discharge to surface runoff 147,Infiltration from septic tanks and drains 148,Irrigation and spray 158
GROUNDWATER 164
3.1.Origins of groundwater, 164
3.1.1.Atmospheric preciPitation, 164
Dissolved and suspended solids 164,Aerosols from gas reactions, 170
3.1.2.Percolation water, 172
Residence time in the unsaturated zone 173,Dissolution of the ground air 174,Dissolution of soil material 175,Soil solutions, 178,Lysimeter measurements 178,Periodic changes in the composition of soil solutions 184,Comparisons between 185
3.1.3.Inland surface waters, 188
3.1.4.Seawater, 195
3.2 Groundwater properties and constituents, 196
3.2.1.Groundwater temperatures, 197
Spring water temperatures, 206
3.2.2.Substances in groundwater, 210
3.2.2.1.Dissolved constituents:Total dissolved solids, 215
3.2.2.1.1.Major constituents, 215
Sodium 215,Potassium 216,Calcium 236,Magnesium 239,Iron 240,Manganese 243,Carbon dioxide,carbonate,hydrogen carbonate,alkalinity,and carbonate hardness 245,Nitrate,nitrite,ammonia,and other nitrogenous compounds 249,Sulfate 256
3.2.2.1.2.Minor constituents and trace elements, 257
Lithium 258,Rubidium 258,Beryllium 258,Strontium 259,Barium 260,Aluminum 261,Vanadium 261,Chromium 262,Molybdenum 262,Cobalt 262,Nickel 263,Copper 263,Silver 264,Zinc 264,Cadmium 265,Mercury 266,Germanium 266,Lead 274
3.2.2.1.3.Organic substances, 276
3.2.2.2.Insoluble constituents, 278
3.2.2.2.1.Suspended matter, 278
3.2.2.2.2.Organisms in groundwater, 279
3.3 Influence of aquifer materials on groundwater quality, 281
Igneous and metamorphic rocks 281,Groundwater in granite,rhyolite,gneiss,and similar rocks 282,Groundwater in gabbro,basalt,and similar crystalline rocks 283,Groundwater in sedimentary rocks 284,Groundwater in sandstones and other psephitic- 288
4.1.Reporting and handling of physical and chemical data;methods of illustrating, 291
CLASSIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF GROUNDWATER 291
4.1.1.Numerical presentation of analyses, 292
4.1.2.Graphical presentation of analyses, 297
4.1.2.1.Pictorial diagrams, 299
Bar graphs 299,Circular diagrams 301,Radial diagrams, 304
4.1.2.2.Multivariate diagrams, 307
Trilinear diagrams 307,Four-coordinate diagrams 312,Two-coordinate diagrams 314,Parallel scale diagrams 314,Horizontal scale diagrams 315,Vertical scale diagrams 315
4.1.2.3.Plotting data on maps, 317
4.1.3.Data processing and storage, 320
4.2.1.Classification on basis of origin, 321
4.2.Groundwater classification, 321
4.2.2.Classification on basis of dissolved constituents, 325
4.2.3.Classification on basis of potential use, 335
4.2.3.1.Potable water, 336
4.2.3.2.Water for agriculture, 343
4.2.3.3.Industrial water, 350
REFERENCES 353
INDEX 399