Introduction: Preliminary Considerations 1
Part Ⅰ Prolegomena 7
Chapter Ⅰ The Evolution towards a New Jus Gentium: The International Law for Humankind 9
Ⅰ. The Historical Emergence of Jus Gentium 9
Ⅱ. The Legacy of the Evolving Jus Gentium: Recta Ratio and the Pursuit of the Common Good 11
Ⅲ. The Fragmentation of Jus Gentium into Jus inter Gentes 14
Ⅳ. The Fallacy of Voluntarist Positivism 16
Ⅴ. International Law-Making and the Reconstruction of Jus Gentium 20
Ⅵ. International Law, Pluralism and Universalism 22
Ⅶ. The Identification of the Basic Feature of the New Jus Gentium 24
Ⅷ. The Universalist Conception of International Law 27
Chapter Ⅱ Time and Law Revisited: International Law and the Temporal Dimension 31
Ⅰ. Introduction 31
Ⅱ. Time and Law: Some Precisions and Lessons 31
Ⅲ. The Incidence of the Temporal Dimension in International Law 34
Ⅳ. Time and International Law in Face of New Needs of Protection 36
Ⅴ. The Presence of the Preventive Dimension in Domains of Protection 39
Ⅵ. The Expansion of Provisional Measures of Protection 41
Ⅶ. The Myopia of Political “Realism” 47
Ⅷ. Concluding Observations 50
Part Ⅱ Foundations of International Law 53
Chapter Ⅲ Foundations of International Law: The Role and Importance of Its Basic Principles 55
Ⅰ. Introduction 55
Ⅱ. The Position and Role of the General Principles of Law 56
Ⅲ. The Fundamental Principles as Substratum of the Legal Order Itself 59
Ⅳ. The Acknowledgement of General Principles of Law by the Statute of the Hague Court （PCIJ and ICJ） 62
1. General Principles of Law and the Quest for Justice 62
2. Principles of International Law as Pillars of the International Legal System 63
Ⅴ The 1970 U.N. Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation among States Revisited 65
1. General Considerations in Historical Perspective 65
2. The Formulation of the Principles of International Law 68
3. The 1970 Declaration of Principles as a Contribution to the Identification of the Opinio Juris Communis 74
Ⅵ. Concluding Observations 77
1. The Sustained Validity of the Principles of International Law 77
2. The Projection in Time of the Evolving Principle of Self-Determination of Peoples 81
3. Principles of International Law, the Quest for Justice and the Universality of International Law 84
Chapter Ⅳ The Primacy of International Law over Force 87
Ⅰ. Introduction 87
Ⅱ. The Crystallization and Continuing Validity of the Principle of Non-Use of Force 87
Ⅲ. The Primacy of Law over Force as a Cornerstone of Contemporary International Law 93
Ⅳ. The Emerging Right to Humanitarian Assistance 97
Ⅴ. The Decivilizing Effects of Unwarranted Use of Force 101
Ⅵ. Final Observations: The Primacy of Law over Force as an Imperative ofJus Cogens 106
Part Ⅲ Formation of International Law 111
Chapter Ⅴ Contemporary International Law-making: A Reassessment of theTheory of Formal “Sources” of International Law 113
Ⅰ. Introduction 113
Ⅱ. General Considerations on the Formal “Sources” of International Law 114
Ⅲ. The Formal “Sources” Enumerated in Article 38 of the ICJ Statute 116
1. International Custom 116
2. Treaties 119
3. General Principles of Law 121
4. Judicial and Arbitral Decisions 123
5. Doctrine 125
6. Equity 127
Ⅳ The Formal “Sources” Not Enumerated in Article 38 of the ICJ Statute 128
1. Unilateral Juridical Acts of States 128
2. Resolutions of International Organizations 129
Ⅴ The Process of Formation of Contemporary International Law: From Consent to Consensus 132
Ⅵ. Opinio Juris beyond Custom: Its Wide Scope and Role in the Formation of Contemporary International Law 134
Chapter Ⅵ The Material Source of International Law:Manifestations of the Universal Juridical Conscience 139
Ⅰ. Introduction: Insufficiencies of the Formal “Sources” and the Relevance of the Material “Source” of International Law 139
Ⅱ. Human Conscience, Recta Ratio, and the Universality of International Law 141
Ⅲ. The Material Source of International Law Beyond State Legal Positivism 145
Ⅳ. Invocation and Assertion of Juridical Conscience in International Treaties 147
Ⅴ. Universal Juridical Conscience: The Historical Significance of the Martens Clause 150
Ⅵ. Invocation of Juridical Conscience in Judicial Proceedings and International Case-Law 152
Ⅶ. Invocation and Assertion of Juridical Conscience in International Legal Doctrine 153
Ⅷ. Final Observations: The Achievements of International Law and the Universal Juridical Conscience 156
Part Ⅳ Subjects of International Law 163
Chapter Ⅶ States as Subjects of International Law and the Expansion of International Legal Personality 165
Ⅰ. Introduction: International Legal Personality Expanded 165
Ⅱ. Statehood and Recognition 165
Ⅲ. Rights and Duties of States 167
Ⅳ.States and the Expansion of International Law 170
Ⅴ.The Erosion of the Domestic Jurisdiction of States 172
Ⅵ. Final Observations: States and the New Horizons of International Legal Personality 177
Chapter Ⅷ International Organizations as Subjects of International Law 181
Ⅰ. Introduction: International Organizations and the Modification of the Structure of the International Legal Order 181
Ⅱ. International Organizations and the Ideal of the Realization of Justice 182
Ⅲ. International Organizations and the Expansion of International Legal Personality and Responsibility 185
Ⅳ The Expansion of International Law Itself by the Law of International Organizations 190
1. International Organizations and the Ascertainment of Opinio Juris 191
2. International Organizations and Treaty-Making Capacity 193
3. Composition of International Organizations: Evolving Issues 194
4. The Growth of Multilateralism and International Cooperation 196
Ⅴ. The Projected Reforms of the International Organizations,Particularly of the United Nations 200
Ⅵ. Concluding Observations: The Contribution of International Organizations to the Progressive Development of International Law 206
1. International Organizations: Contents and Legal Effects of Resolutions 206
2. Responses to New Needs and Aspirations of the International Community 208
Chapter Ⅸ The Legal Personality of the Individual as Subject of International Law 213
Ⅰ. Introduction 213
Ⅱ. The Individual as Subject of the Emerging Law of Nations 213
Ⅲ. The Attempted Exclusion of the Individual from the International Legal Order 217
Ⅳ. The Individual's Presence and Participation in the International Legal Order 220
Ⅴ. The Rescue of the Individual as Subject of International Law 224
Ⅵ. The Legal Personality of the Individual as a Response to a Need of the International Community 232
Ⅶ. The Attribution of Duties to the Individual Directly by International Law 234
Ⅷ. Personality and Capacity: The Individual's Access to Justice at International Level 236
Ⅸ. Final Observations: The Historical Significance of the InternationaltySubjectivi of the Individual 239
Chapter Ⅹ The Legal Capacity of the Individual as Subject of International Law 243
Ⅰ. Introduction 243
Ⅱ. The nternational Legal Capacity of the Individual: Legal Foundations, Nature and Scope 243
1. Legal Foundations of the Access of the Human Being to International Tribunals 243
2. Juridical Nature and Scope of the Right of International Individual Petition 247
Ⅲ. The Emancipation of the Individual from His Own State 251
Ⅳ The Locus Standi of Individuals in the Procedures before International Human Rights Tribunals 255
1. Developments in the European System of Protection 256
2. Developments in the Inter-American System of Protection 261
Ⅴ The Individual Right of Direct Access （Jus Standi） to International Human Rights Tribunals 264
1. Antecedents of Domestic Law: The Subjective Right, and the Direct Access （Jus Standi） to National Tribunals 266
2. Developments in International Law: The Direct Access （Jus Standi） to International Human Rights Tribunals 267
Ⅵ. The Right of Access Lato Sensu of Individuals to International Justice 268
Ⅶ. Concluding Observations 271
Chapter Ⅺ Humankind as a Subject of International Law 275
Ⅰ. The Perception and Awareness of Common and Superior Interests of Humankind as Such 275
Ⅱ. The Fundamental Principle of Humanity 276
Ⅲ. Humankind and Considerations of Humanity: A Conceptual Precision 280
Ⅳ. The Emergence of Humankind as a Subject of International Law 281
Ⅴ. Legal Consequences of the Acknowledgement of Humankind as Subject of International Law 286
1. The Relevance of the Human Rights Framework 286
2. The Question of the Capacity to Act and Legal Representation 286
Part Ⅴ Construction of the International Law for Humankind 289
Chapter Ⅻ Conceptual Constructions: Jus Cogens and Obligations Erga Omnes 291
Ⅰ. Introduction: Fundamental Values of the International Community 291
Ⅱ. International Jus Cogens （Peremptory Norms of General International Law） 292
1. Emergence and Content of Jus Cogens 292
2. Evolving Scope of Jus Cogens 295
3. The Gradual Expansion of the Material Content of Jus Cogens 299
4. Jus Cogens as a Pillar of the New Jus Gentium, the International Law for Humankind 310
Ⅲ. Obligations Erga Omnes of Protection 312
1. Emergence and Scope of the Obligations 312
2. Horizontal and Vertical Dimensions of the Obligations 317
Ⅳ Obligations Erga Omnes and the Emergence of Actio Popularis 320
Ⅴ. Concluding Observations 322
Chapter ⅩⅢ Conceptual Constructions: Common Heritage of Mankind and Common Concern of Mankind 327
Ⅰ. Introduction 327
Ⅱ. The Content and Significance of the Concept of Common Heritage of Mankind 327
1. In the Domain of the International Law of Outer Space 329
2. In the Domain of the Law of the Sea 331
3. In the Domain of the International Law of Bioethics 336
4. In the Domain of International Environmental Law 339
Ⅲ. The Content and Significance of the Concept of Common Concern of Mankind 344
1. The Emergence of the New Concept 344
2. The Contribution of the New Concept 346
3. The Co-existence between Common Heritage and Common Concern of Mankind, and Their Legacy to International Law 348
Ⅳ. Concluding Observations 350
Chapter ⅩⅣ Conceptual Constructions: The Right to Peace and the Right to Development 353
Ⅰ. The Formulation of the Right to Peace in International Law 353
1. Elements of the Right to Peace in International Law 353
2. Recent Developments in the Formulation of the Right to Peace 355
Ⅱ. The Formulation of the Right to Development in International Law 357
1. Elements of the Right to Development in International Law 357
2. Crystallization of the Right to Development as a Human Right 360
3. The Conceptual Construction of Human Development 361
4. Lessons from the Crystallization of the Right to Development 364
Chapter ⅩⅤ Conceptual Constructions: Responsibility for International:Crimes and Universal Jurisdiction 367
Ⅰ. Introduction 367
Ⅱ. The International Responsibility of the State and of the Individual:Recent Developments 367
Ⅲ. State Responsibility, the Criminalization of Grave Violations of Human Rights and the Realization of Justice 369
Ⅳ Complementarity between the International Responsibility of Statesand the International Criminal Responsibility of Individuals 372
Ⅴ Some Considerations on the Crime of State Revisited 374
1. Configuration of the Crime of State 374
2. The Crime of State in Relation to the Fundamental or Superior Interests of the International Community 377
Ⅵ. Juridical Consequences of the Crime of State 379
Ⅶ. The Principle of Universal Jurisdiction 383
Ⅷ. Concluding Observations 389
Part Ⅵ Humanization of International Law 391
Chapter ⅩⅥ Basic Considerations of Humanity in the Corpus Juris of International Law 393
Ⅰ. Introduction: The Relevance of Basic Considerations of Humanity 393
Ⅱ. The Omnipresence of Basic Considerations of Humanity 395
1. Illustrations of International Case-Law 395
2. Illustrations of International Legal Doctrine 398
Ⅲ. Concluding Observations 399
Chapter ⅩⅦ Basic Considerations of Humanity in Relation to Disarmament 401
Ⅰ. Introduction 401
Ⅱ. The Search for Peace: The Creation of Zones of Peace 401
1. The Attainment of Peace and Human Security:A Permanent Goal 401
2. The Initiative of Zones of Peace 404
Ⅲ. The Establishment of Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones 405
Ⅳ. The Endeavours towards General and Complete Disarmament 410
Ⅴ. The Illegality of Nuclear Weapons 413
Ⅵ. Final Observations 423
Chapter ⅩⅧ Basic Considerations of Humanity in Relation to the Law of Treaties 429
Ⅰ. Introduction 429
Ⅱ. Considerations on the Interpretation of Treaties 429
1. General Remarks 429
2. Procedural Issues 433
3. Substantive Law 434
Ⅲ. Considerations on the Reservations to Treaties 435
Ⅳ. Considerations on the Denunciation of Treaties 445
Ⅴ. Considerations on the Termination and Suspension of the Operation of Treaties 448
Ⅵ. Concluding Observations 449
Chapter ⅩⅨ Basic Considerations of Humanity in Relation to State Responsibility 453
Ⅰ. State Responsibility and the General Interests of the International Community 453
Ⅱ. The Birth of the International Responsibility of States 456
Ⅲ. The Implementation of the International Responsibility of States 462
Ⅳ. Serious Breaches of Obligations under Peremptory Norms of International Law 464
Ⅴ. Concluding Observations 467
Chapter ⅩⅩ Basic Considerations of Humanity in Relation to State Succession 469
Ⅰ. Distinct Moments and Contexts of State Succession 469
Ⅱ. State Succession and the General Interests of the International Community 471
Ⅲ. State Succession and Continuity of Conventional Obligations Concerning Human Rights 472
Ⅳ. Concluding Observations 476
Chapter ⅩⅪ Basic Considerations of Humanity in Relation to Territory 479
Ⅰ. Prerequisites of Statehood Revisited 479
Ⅱ. Non-Self-Governing Territories 482
Ⅲ. Non-Militarization and Peaceful Uses of Antarctica 484
Ⅳ. Territory and Zonal Initiatives for Peace 486
Ⅴ. Transitional Administration of Territory on Behalf of the International Community 486
1. The Case of Kosovo 487
2. The Case of East Timor 489
3. The Centrality of Protection of the Populations 490
Chapter ⅩⅫ Basic Considerations of Humanity in Relation to Diplomatic and Consular Law 493
Ⅰ. Introduction: Diplomatic and Consular Law beyond the Inter-State Outlook 493
Ⅱ. Diplomatic and Consular Law and Universal International Law 495
Ⅲ. The Right to Information on Consular Assistance in the Framework of the Guarantees of the Due Process of Law 497
Ⅳ.The Humanization of Consular Law in Contemporary International Practice 501
Ⅴ. Concluding Observations 507
Chapter ⅩⅩⅢ Basic Considerations of Humanity in Relation to the Convergences of Regimes of Protection of the Human Person 511
Ⅰ. The Consolidated Convergences between the Regimes of Protection of the Human Person 511
Ⅱ. The Intensified Convergences between the Regimes of Protection of the Human Person 514
Ⅲ. The Contemporary Phenomenon of Uprootedness as a Problem Pertaining to the Rights of the Human Person 518
Ⅳ. The Character of Jus Cogens of the Principle of Non-Refoulement 520
Ⅴ. Concluding Observations 525
Part Ⅶ Settlement of Disputes 529
Chapter ⅩⅩⅣ Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes: Current State and Perspectives 531
Ⅰ. Introduction: The Basic Problem of Compulsory Jurisdiction 531
Ⅱ. Interaction or Complementarity of Means of Peaceful Settlement 533
Ⅲ. Settlement of Disputes in Multilateral Treaties 541
Ⅳ.Current Developments: Fact-Finding and the Search for Justice and the Prevalence of the Rule of Law 544
Ⅴ. The Search for ad hoc Solutions 547
1. The Experience of Contadora 549
2. The Experience of Guarantor States 550
Ⅵ. Endeavours of Systematization 552
Ⅶ. Peaceful Settlement and the Renunciation of the Use of Force in International Relations 555
Ⅷ. Peaceful Settlement beyond State Voluntarism: Some New Trends 556
Ⅸ. Peaceful Settlement and the General Interests of the International Community 559
Ⅹ. Concluding Observations 562
Chapter ⅩⅩⅤ International Rule of Law: The Need and Quest for International Compulsory Jurisdiction 567
Ⅰ. International Rule of Law Beyond Peaceful Settlement of Disputes 567
Ⅱ. International Rule of Law: The Saga of the Optional Clause of Compulsory Jurisdiction 568
1. From the Professed Ideal to a Distorted Practice 568
2. International Compulsory Jurisdiction: Reflections Lex Lata 572
3. International Compulsory Jurisdiction: Reflections De Lege Ferenda 579
Ⅲ. The Recurring Need and Quest for Compulsory Jurisdiction 582
Ⅳ. International Rule of Law: The Growth of International Jurisdiction 586
Part Ⅷ Perspectives 593
Chapter ⅩⅩⅥ The Legacy of the Recent Cycle of World Conferences of the United Nations 595
Ⅰ. Preliminary Observations: The International Legal Order in a World of Profound Contradictions 595
1. A Transformation of Epoch 596
2. The Spirit of Our Epoch 597
3. Universalism and Cultural Diversity 598
Ⅱ. The Legacy of the Cycle of U.N. World Conferences: Conditions of Life as a Matter of International Concern 599
1. U.N. Conference on Environment and Development （Rio de Janeiro, 1992） 600
2. Ⅱ World Conference on Human Rights （Vienna, 1993） 601
3. International Conference on Population and Development（Cairo, 1994） 602
4. World Summit for Social Development （Copenhagen, 1995） 603
5. Ⅳ World Conference on Women （Beijing, 1995） 605
6. U.N. Conference on Human Settlements （Habitat-Ⅱ, Istanbul,1996） 606
7. U.N. Conference on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court （Rome, 1998） 607
8. World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination,Xenophobia and Related Intolerance （Durban, 2001） 609
9. U.N. Millenium Summit （2ooo） and World Summit Outcome（2005） 610
Ⅲ. The United Nations and the Rule of Law at National and International Levels 614
Ⅳ Concluding Observations 619
Chapter ⅩⅩⅦ Codification and Progressive Development of a Universal International Law 623
Ⅰ. Introduction 623
Ⅱ. Codification and Progressive Development in Historical Perspective 623
Ⅲ. Codification and Progressive Development: Lessons and Projections 626
Ⅳ Concluding Observations: Codification and Progressive Development Moved by the Universal Juridical Conscience 628
Chapter ⅩⅩⅧ Conclusions: International Law for Humankind -Towards a New Jus Gentium 635
Ⅰ. The Process of Gradual Humanization of Public International Law 635
Ⅱ. The New Jus Gentium: International Law for Humankind 637
1. Foundations 637
2. Subjects 639
3. Conceptual Constructions 640
4. Basic Considerations of Humanity 642
5. International Rule of Law 644
Ⅲ. Epilogue: A Message of Confidence 645
Select Bibliography 647
Table of Cases 693
Index 707