Chapter 1 The Environment and Sustainability Science 1
1.1 From the Sun to Fossil Fuels and Back Again 1
1.1.1 The Brief but Spectacular Era of Fossil Fuels 2
1.1.2 Back to the Sun 2
1.2 The Science of Sustainability 3
1.2.1 Environmental Science 4
1.2.2 Green Science and Technology 4
1.3 Chemistry and the Environment 4
1.4 Water， Air， Earth， Life， and Technology 5
1.4.1 Water and the Hydrosphere 5
1.4.2 Air and the Atmosphere 6
1.4.3 Earth， the Geosphere 7
1.4.4 Life， the Biosphere 7
1.4.5 Technology and the Environment 7
1.5 Ecology， Ecotoxicology， and the Biosphere 8
1.5.1 The Biosphere 8
1.5.2 Ecology 9
1.5.3 Ecotoxicology 9
1.6 Energy and Cycles of Energy 10
1.6.1 Light and Electromagnetic Radiation 10
1.6.2 Energy Flow and Photosynthesis in Living Systems 11
1.6.3 Energy Utilization 11
1.7 Human Impact and Pollution 12
1.7.1 Some Definitions Pertaining to Pollution 12
1.7.2 Pollution of Various Spheres of the Environment 12
1.8 Chemical Fate and Transport 12
1.8.1 Physical Transport 14
1.8.2 Reactivity 14
1.8.3 Mass Balance Expression 14
1.8.4 Distribution among Phases 15
1.9 Chemical Fate and Transport in the Atmosphere， Hydrosphere，and Geosphere 15
1.9.1 Pollutants in the Atmosphere 16
1.9.2 Pollutants in the Hydrosphere 16
1.9.3 Pollutants in the Geosphere 17
1.10 Environmental Mischief and Terrorism 17
1.10.1 Protection through Green Chemistry and Engineering 17
1.11 Environmental Forensics 18
Literature Cited 19
Supplementary References 19
Questions and Problems 19
Chapter 2 Chemistry and the Anthrosphere： Environmental Chemistry and Green Chemistry 23
2.1 Environmental Chemistry 23
2.2 Matter and Cycles of Matter 24
2.2.1 Carbon Cycle 25
2.2.2 Nitrogen Cycle 27
2.2.3 Oxygen Cycle 28
2.2.4 Phosphorus Cycle 28
2.2.5 Sulfur Cycle 28
2.3 Anthrosphere and Environmental Chemistry 29
2.3.1 Components of the Anthrosphere 30
2.4 Technology and the Anthrosphere 31
2.4.1 Engineering 32
2.5 Infrastructure 33
2.5.1 Vulnerable Infrastructure 34
2.6 Components of the Anthrosphere That Influence the Environment 35
2.7 Effects of the Anthrosphere on Earth 37
2.8 Integration of the Anthrosphere into the Total Environment 38
2.8.1 Anthrosphere and Industrial Ecology 39
2.9 Green Chemistry 40
2.9.1 Green Synthetic Chemistry 40
2.9.2 Risk Reduction 41
2.9.3 Specific Aspects of Green Chemistry 41
2.9.4 Three Undesirable Characteristics of Chemicals： Persistence，Bioaccumulation， and Toxicity 42
2.9.5 Green Chemistry and Environmental Chemistry 42
Literature Cited 42
Supplementary References 43
Questions and Problems 43
Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Aquatic Chemistry 47
3.1 Importance of Water 47
3.2 Water： From Molecules to Oceans 47
3.2.1 Sources and Uses of Water： The Hydrological Cycle 47
3.2.2 Properties of Water， a Unique Substance 50
3.2.3 Water Molecule 50
3.3 Characteristics of Bodies of Water 52
3.4 Aquatic Life 52
3.5 Introduction to Aquatic Chemistry 53
3.6 Gases in Water 54
3.6.1 Oxygen in Water 54
3.7 Water Acidity and Carbon Dioxide in Water 55
3.7.1 Carbon Dioxide in Water 56
3.8 Alkalinity 59
3.8.1 Contributors to Alkalinity at Different pH Values 60
3.8.2 Dissolved Inorganic Carbon and Alkalinity 60
3.8.3 Influence of Alkalinity on CO2 Solubility 61
3.9 Calcium and Other Metals in Water 62
3.9.1 Hydrated Metal Ions as Acids 62
3.9.2 Calcium in Water 63
3.9.3 Dissolved Carbon Dioxide and Calcium Carbonate Minerals 64
3.10 Complexation and Chelation 65
3.10.1 Occurrence and Importance of Chelating Agents in Water 67
3.11 Bonding and Structure of Metal Complexes 68
3.11.1 Selectivity and Specitycity in Chelation 68
3.12 Calculations of Species Concentrations 68
3.13 Complexation by Deprotonated Ligands 69
3.14 Complexation by Protonated Ligands 70
3.15 Solubilization of Lead Ion from Solids by NTA 71
3.15.1 Reaction of NTA with Metal Carbonate 73
3.15.2 Effect of Calcium Ion upon the Reaction of Chelating Agents with Slightly Soluble Salts 74
3.16 Polyphosphates and Phosphonates in Water 75
3.16.1 Polyphosphates 76
3.16.2 Hydrolysis of Polyphosphates 76
3.16.3 Complexation by Polyphosphates 76
3.16.4 Phosphonates 77
3.17 Complexation by Humic Substances 77
3.18 Complexation and Redox Processes 79
Literature Cited 79
Supplementary References 79
Questions and Problems 80
Chapter 4 Oxidation-Reduction in Aquatic Chemistry 83
4.1 The Significance of Oxidation-Reduction 83
4.2 Electron and Redox Reactions 85
4.3 Electron Activity and pE 87
4.4 The Nernst equation 88
4.5 Reaction Tendency： Whole Reaction from Half-Reactions 89
4.6 The Nernst Equation and Chemical Equilibrium 90
4.7 The Relationship of pE to Free Energy 91
4.8 Reactions in Terms of One Electron-Mole 91
4.9 The Limits of pE in Water 93
4.10 pE Values in Natural Water Systems 94
4.11 pE-pH Diagrams 95
4.12 Humic Substances as Natural Reductants 98
4.13 Photochemical Processes in Oxidation-Reduction 99
4.14 Corrosion 99
Literature Cited 100
Supplementary References 100
Questions and Problems 101
Chapter 5 Phase Interactions in Aquatic Chemistry 103
5.1 Chemical Interactions Involving Solids， Gases， and Water 103
5.2 Importance and Formation of Sediments 103
5.2.1 Formation of Sediments 104
5.2.2 Organic and Carbonaceous Sedimentary Materials 105
5.3 Solubilities 106
5.3.1 Solubilities of Solids 106
5.3.2 Solubilities of Gases 107
5.4 Colloidal Particles in Water 108
5.4.1 Contaminant Transport by Colloids in Water 109
5.4.2 Occurrence of Colloids in Water 109
5.4.3 Kinds of Colloidal Particles 109
5.4.4 Colloid Stability 110
5.5 Colloidal Properties of Clays 112
5.6 Aggregation of Particles 113
5.6.1 Flocculation of Colloids by Polyelectrolytes 114
5.6.2 Flocculation of Bacteria by Polymeric Materials 114
5.7 Surface Sorption by Solids 115
5.8 Solute Exchange with Bottom Sediments 116
5.8.1 Trace-Level Metals in Suspended Matter and Sediments 117
5.8.2 Phosphorus Exchange with Bottom Sediments 118
5.8.3 Organic Compounds on Sediments and Suspended Matter 119
5.8.4 Bioavailability of Sediment Contaminants 120
5.9 Interstitial Water 121
5.10 Phase Interactions in Chemical Fate and Transport 122
5.10.1 Rivers 122
5.10.2 Lakes and Reservoirs 122
5.10.3 Exchange with the Atmosphere 122
5.10.4 Exchange with Sediments 123
Literature Cited 124
Supplementary References 124
Questions and Problems 125
Chapter 6 Aquatic Microbial Biochemistry 127
6.1 Aquatic Biochemical Processes 127
6.1.1 Microorganisms at Interfaces 128
6.2 Algae 129
6.3 Fungi 130
6.4 Protozoa 130
6.5 Bacteria 131
6.5.1 Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Bacteria 131
6.5.2 Oxic and Anoxic Bacteria 132
6.5.3 Marine Bacteria 132
6.6 The Prokaryotic Bacterial Cell 133
6.7 Kinetics of Bacterial Growth 134
6.8 Bacterial Metabolism 134
6.8.1 Factors Affecting Bacterial Metabolism 135
6.8.2 Microbial Oxidation and Reduction 137
6.9 Microbial Transformations of Carbon 139
6.9.1 Methane-Forming Bacteria 139
6.9.2 Bacterial Utilization of Hydrocarbons 140
6.9.3 Microbial Utilization of Carbon Monoxide 140
6.10 Biodegradation of Organic Matter 140
6.10.1 Oxidation 141
6.10.1.1 Microbial Oxidation of Hydrocarbons 141
6.10.2 Other Biochemical Processes in Biodegradation of Organics 142
6.11 Microbial Transformations of Nitrogen 143
6.11.1 Nitrogen Fixation 144
6.11.2 Nitrification 145
6.11.3 Nitrate Reduction 146
6.11.4 Denitrification 146
6.11.5 Competitive Oxidation of Organic Matter by Nitrate Ion and Other Oxidizing Agents 146
6.12 Microbial Transformations of Phosphorus and Sulfur 147
6.12.1 Phosphorus Compounds 147
6.12.2 Sulfur Compounds 148
6.12.2.1 Oxidation of H2S and Reduction of Sulfate by Bacteria 148
6.12.3 Microorganism-Mediated Degradation of Organic Sulfur Compounds 149
6.13 Microbial Transformations of Halogens and Organohalides 149
6.14 Microbial Transformations of Metals and Metalloids 150
6.14.1 Acid Mine Waters 151
6.14.2 Microbial Transitions of Selenium 152
6.14.3 Microbial Corrosion 153
Literature Cited 153
Supplementary References 154
Questions and Problems 154
Chapter 7 Water Pollution 159
7.1 Nature and Types of Water Pollutants 159
7.1.1 Markers of Water Pollution 159
7.2 Elemental Pollutants 159
7.3 Heavy Metals 161
7.3.1 Cadmium 161
7.3.2 Lead 161
7.3.3 Mercury 162
7.4 Metalloids 163
7.5 Organically Bound Metals and Metalloids 164
7.5.1 Organotin Compounds 165
7.6 Inorganic Species 165
7.6.1 Cyanide 165
7.6.2 Ammonia and Other Inorganic Pollutants 166
7.6.3 Asbestos in Water 167
7.7 Algal Nutrients and Eutrophication 167
7.8 Acidity， Alkalinity， and Salinity 168
7.9 Oxygen， Oxidants， and Reductants 169
7.10 Organic Pollutants 170
7.10.1 Bioaccumulation of Organic Pollutants 170
7.10.2 Sewage 170
7.10.3 Soaps， Detergents， and Detergent Builders 171
7.10.3.1 Soaps 171
7.10.3.2 Detergents 172
7.10.4 Naturally Occurring Chlorinated and Brominated Compounds 174
7.10.5 Microbial Toxins 174
7.11 Pesticides in Water 175
7.11.1 Natural Product Insecticides， Pyrethrins， and Pyrethroids 175
7.11.2 DDT and Organochlorine Insecticides 177
7.11.3 Organophosphate Insecticides 178
7.11.4 Carbamates 179
7.11.5 Fungicides 179
7.11.6 Herbicides 180
7.11.6.1 Bipyridilium Compounds 180
7.11.6.2 Herbicidal Heterocyclic Nitrogen Compounds 181
7.11.6.3 Chlorophenoxy Herbicides 181
7.11.6.4 Miscellaneous Herbicides 181
7.11.7 By-Products of Pesticide Manufacture 182
7.12 Polychlorinated Biphenyls 183
7.13 Emerging Water Pollutants， Pharmaceuticals， and Household Wastes 184
7.13.1 Bactericides 186
7.13.2 Estrogenic Substances in Wastewater Effluents 186
7.13.3 Biorefractory Organic Pollutants 186
7.14 Radionuclides in the Aquatic Environment 188
Literature Cited 192
Supplementary References 192
Questions and Problems 193
Chapter 8 Water Treatment 197
8.1 Water Treatment and Water Use 197
8.2 Municipal Water Treatment 197
8.3 Treatment of Water for Industrial Use 198
8.4 Sewage Treatment 199
8.4.1 Primary Waste Treatment 199
8.4.2 Secondary Waste Treatment by Biological Processes 200
8.4.3 Membrane Bioreactor 203
8.4.4 Tertiary Waste Treatment 203
8.4.5 Physical-Chemical Treatment of Municipal Wastewater 203
8.5 Industrial Wastewater Treatment 204
8.6 Removal of Solids 205
8.6.1 Dissolved Air Flotation 206
8.6.2 Membrane Filtration Processes 206
8.7 Removal of Calcium and Other Metals 207
8.7.1 Removal of Iron and Manganese 211
8.8 Removal of Dissolved Organics 212
8.8.1 Removal of Herbicides 213
8.9 Removal of Dissolved Inorganics 214
8.9.1 Ion Exchange 214
8.9.2 Electrodialysis 214
8.9.3 Reverse Osmosis 215
8.9.4 Phosphorus Removal 216
8.9.5 Nitrogen Removal 217
8.10 Sludge 218
8.11 Water Disinfection 219
8.11.1 Chlorine Dioxide 220
8.11.2 Ozone and Other Oxidants 221
8.11.3 Disinfection with Ultraviolet Radiation 222
8.12 Natural Water Purification Processes 222
8.12.1 Industrial Wastewater Treatment by Soil 223
8.13 Green Water 223
8.13.1 Reuse and Recycling of Wastewater 224
8.14 Water Conservation 226
8.15 Protecting Water Supplies from Attack 227
Literature Cited 228
Supplementary References 228
Questions and Problems 229
Chapter 9 The Atmosphere and Atmospheric Chemistry 233
9.1 Introduction 233
9.1.1 Photochemistry and Some Important Terms 233
9.1.2 Atmospheric Composition 234
9.1.3 Gaseous Oxides in the Atmosphere 234
9.1.4 Atmospheric Methane 235
9.1.5 Hydrocarbons and Photochemical Smog 236
9.1.6 Particulate Matter 236
9.1.7 Primary and Secondary Pollutants 236
9.2 Importance of the Atmosphere 236
9.3 Physical Characteristics of the Atmosphere 237
9.3.1 Variation of Pressure and Density with Altitude 237
9.3.2 Stratification of the Atmosphere 238
9.4 Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere 240
9.4.1 The Earth’s Radiation Budget 241
9.5 Atmospheric Mass Transfer， Meteorology， and Weather 241
9.5.1 Atmospheric Water in Energy and Mass Transfer 243
9.5.2 Air Masses 243
9.5.3 Topographical Effects 244
9.5.4 Movement of Air Masses 244
9.5.5 Global Weather 245
9.5.6 Weather Fronts and Storms 246
9.6 Inversions and Air Pollution 247
9.7 Global Climate and Microclimate 247
9.7.1 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and Human Modifications of Climate 248
9.7.2 Microclimate 248
9.7.3 Effects of Urbanization on Microclimate 249
9.8 Chemical and Photochemical Reactions in the Atmosphere 249
9.8.1 Photochemical Processes 251
9.8.2 Ions and Radicals in the Atmosphere 253
9.8.2.1 Free Radicals 254
9.8.3 Hydroxyl and Hydroperoxyl Radicals in the Atmosphere 254
9.8.4 Chemical and Biochemical Processes in Evolution of the Atmosphere 256
9.9 Acid-Base Reactions in the Atmosphere 257
9.10 Reactions of Atmospheric Oxygen 258
9.11 Reactions of Atmospheric Nitrogen 259
9.12 Atmospheric Water 260
9.13 Influence of the Anthrosphere 260
9.14 Chemical Fate and Transport in the Atmosphere 261
Literature Cited 262
Supplementary References 262
Questions and Problems 263
Chapter 10 Particles in the Atmosphere 265
10.1 Introduction 265
10.2 Physical Behavior of Particles in the Atmosphere 266
10.2.1 Size and Settling of Atmospheric Particles 267
10.3 Physical Processes for Particle Formation 267
10.4 Chemical Processes for Particle Formation 268
10.4.1 Inorganic Particles 269
10.4.2 Organic Particles 270
10.4.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Synthesis 270
10.5 The Composition of Inorganic Particles 271
10.5.1 Fly Ash 272
10.5.2 Asbestos 272
10.6 Toxic Metals in the Atmosphere 273
10.6.1 Atmospheric Mercury 273
10.6.2 Atmospheric Lead 273
10.6.3 Atmospheric Beryllium 274
10.7 Radioactive Particles 274
10.8 The Composition of Organic Particles 275
10.8.1 PAHs 275
10.8.2 Carbonaceous Particles from Diesel Engines 276
10.9 Effects of Particles 276
10.9.1 Partitioning of Semivolatile Organic Substances between Air and Particles 277
10.10 Water as Particulate Matter 277
10.11 Atmospheric Chemical Reactions Involving Particles 278
10.12 Control of Particulate Emissions 280
10.12.1 Particle Removal by Sedimentation and Inertia 280
10.12.2 Particle Filtration 280
10.12.3 Scrubbers 281
10.12.4 Electrostatic Removal 282
Literature Cited 282
Supplementary References 283
Questions and Problems 283
Chapter 11 Gaseous Inorganic Air Pollutants 285
11.1 Inorganic Pollutant Gases 285
11.2 Production and Control of Carbon Monoxide 285
11.2.1 Control of Carbon Monoxide Emissions 285
11.3 Fate of Atmospheric CO 286
11.4 Sulfur Dioxide Sources and the Sulfur Cycle 286
11.5 Sulfur Dioxide Reactions in the Atmosphere 287
11.5.1 Effects of Atmospheric Sulfur Dioxide 289
11.5.2 Sulfur Dioxide Removal 290
11.6 Nitrogen Oxides in the Atmosphere 292
11.6.1 Atmospheric Reactions of NO 294
11.6.2 Harmful Effects of Nitrogen Oxides 296
11.6.3 Control of Nitrogen Oxides 297
11.7 Acid Rain 299
11.8 Ammonia in the Atmosphere 299
11.9 Fluorine， Chlorine， and their Gaseous Compounds 299
11.9.1 Chlorine and Hydrogen Chloride 300
11.10 Reduced Sulfur Gases 301
Literature Cited 303
Supplementary References 303
Questions And Problems 304
Chapter 12 Organic Air Pollutants 307
12.1 Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere 307
12.1.1 Loss of Organic Substances from the Atmosphere 307
12.1.2 Global Distillation and Fractionation of Persistent Organic Pollutants （POP） 307
12.2 Biogenic Organic Compounds 308
12.2.1 Removal of Atmospheric Organic Compounds by Plants 310
12.3 Pollutant Hydrocarbons 310
12.3.1 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 313
12.3.2 Reactions of Atmospheric Aromatic Hydrocarbons 314
12.4 Carbonyl Compounds： Aldehydes and Ketones 315
12.5 Miscellaneous Oxygen-Containing Compounds 317
12.5.1 Alcohols 317
12.5.2 Phenols 318
12.5.3 Ethers 318
12.5.4 Oxides 319
12.5.5 Carboxylic Acids 319
12.6 Organonitrogen Compounds 320
12.7 Organohalide Compounds 322
12.7.1 Chlorofluorocarbons 323
12.7.2 Atmospheric Reactions of Hydrofluorocarbons and Hydrochlorofluorocarbons 324
12.7.3 Perfluorocarbons 325
12.7.4 Marine Sources of Organohalogen Compounds 325
12.7.5 Chlorinated Dibenzo-p-dioxins and Dibenzofurans 325
12.8 Organosulfur Compounds 326
12.9 Organic Particulate Matter 327
12.10 Hazardous Air Pollutants Organic Compounds 327
Literature Cited 329
Supplementary References 330
Questions and Problems 330
Chapter 13 Photochemical Smog 333
13.1 Introduction 333
13.2 Smog-Forming Emissions 334
13.2.1 Control of Exhaust Hydrocarbons 334
13.2.2 Automotive Emission Standards 337
13.2.3 Polluting Green Plants 337
13.3 Smog-Forming Reactions of Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere 338
13.3.1 Photochemical Reactions of Methane 338
13.4 Overview of Smog Formation 340
13.5 Mechanisms of Smog Formation 341
13.5.1 Nitrate Radical 347
13.5.2 Photolyzable Compounds in the Atmosphere 347
13.6 Reactivity of Hydrocarbons 348
13.7 Inorganic Products from Smog 348
13.8 Effects of Smog 349
Literature Cited 352
Supplementary References 352
Questions and Problems 353
Chapter 14 The Endangered Global Atmosphere 355
14.1 Climate Change and Anthropogenic Effects 355
14.1.1 Changes in Climate 356
14.2 Global Warming 357
14.2.1 Methane and Other Greenhouse Gases 360
14.2.2 Particles and Global Warming 360
14.2.3 The Outlook for Global Warming and Associated Effects 361
14.3 Green Science and Technology to Alleviate Global Warming 361
14.3.1 Minimization 362
14.3.2 Counteracting Measures 364
14.3.3 Adaptation 364
14.4 Acid Rain 365
14.5 Stratospheric Ozone Destruction 368
14.5.1 Shielding Effect of the Ozone Layer 369
14.5.2 Ozone Layer Destruction 369
14.5.3 Green Chemistry Solutions to Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 372
14.6 Atmospheric Brown Clouds 373
14.6.1 Yellow Dust 374
14.7 Atmospheric Damage by Photochemical Smog 375
14.8 Nuclear Winter 377
14.8.1 Doomsday Visitors from Space 379
14.9 What Is to Be Done？ 379
Literature Cited 381
Supplementary References 381
Questions and Problems 382
Chapter 15 The Geosphere and Geochemistry 385
15.1 Introduction 385
15.2 The Nature of Solids in the Geosphere 386
15.2.1 Structure and Properties of Minerals 386
15.2.2 Kinds of Minerals 387
15.2.3 Evaporites 387
15.2.4 Volcanic Sublimates 388
15.2.5 Igneous， Sedimentary， and Metamorphic Rock 388
15.2.5.1 Rock Cycle 389
15.2.5.2 Stages of Weathering 389
15.3 Physical Form of the Geosphere 389
15.3.1 Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift 390
15.3.2 Structural Geology 390
15.4 Internal Processes 391
15.4.1 Earthquakes 392
15.4.2 Volcanoes 392
15.4.3 Surface Processes 393
15.5 Sediments 393
15.6 Clays 394
15.7 Geochemistry 395
15.7.1 Physical Aspects of Weathering 396
15.7.2 Chemical Weathering 396
15.7.3 Biological Aspects of Weathering 397
15.8 Groundwater in the Geosphere 397
15.8.1 Water Wells 399
15.8.2 Qanats 400
15.9 Environmental Aspects of the Geosphere 400
15.9.1 Natural Hazards 401
15.9.2 Anthropogenic Hazards 401
15.10 Earthquakes 401
15.11 Volcanoes 403
15.11.1 Mud Volcanoes 404
15.12 Surface Earth Movement 404
15.13 Stream and River Phenomena 406
15.14 Phenomena at the Land/Ocean Interface 407
15.14.1 The Threat of Rising Sea Levels 408
15.15 Phenomena at the Land/Atmosphere Interface 409
15.16 Effects of Ice 409
15.17 Effects of Human Activities 410
15.17.1 Extraction of Geospheric Resources： Surface Mining 411
15.17.2 Environmental Effects of Mining and Mineral Extraction 411
15.18 Air Pollution and the Geosphere 411
15.19 Water Pollution and the Geosphere 412
15.20 Waste Disposal and the Geosphere 413
15.20.1 Municipal Refuse 413
Literature Cited 415
Supplementary References 415
Questions and Problems 416
Chapter 16 Soil and Agricultural Environmental Chemistry 419
16.1 Soil and Agriculture 419
16.1.1 Agriculture 419
16.1.2 Pesticides and Agriculture 421
16.2 Nature and Composition of Soil 421
16.2.1 Water and Air in Soil 422
16.2.2 The Inorganic Components of Soil 424
16.2.3 Organic Matter in Soil 424
16.2.4 Soil Humus 426
16.2.5 The Soil Solution 426
16.3 Acid-Base and Ion-Exchange Reactions in Soils 427
16.3.1 Adjustment of Soil Acidity 428
16.3.2 Ion-Exchange Equilibria in Soil 428
16.4 Macronutrients in Soil 429
16.5 Nitrogen， Phosphorus， and Potassium in Soil 430
16.5.1 Nitrogen 430
16.5.2 Phosphorus 432
16.5.3 Potassium 433
16.6 Micronutrients in Soil 433
16.7 Fertilizers 434
16.7.1 Fertilizer Pollution 435
16.8 Pollutants from Livestock Production 436
16.9 Pesticides and Their Residues in Soil 436
16.9.1 Soil Fumigants 437
16.10 Wastes and Pollutants in Soil 438
16.10.1 Biodegradation and the Rhizosphere 440
16.11 Soil Loss and Degradation 440
16.11.1 Soil Sustainability and Water Resources 441
16.12 Saving the Land 442
16.12.1 Agroforestry 443
16.12.2 Soil Restoration 443
16.13 Genetic Engineering and Agriculture 444
16.14 Green Chemistry and Sustainable Agriculture 445
16.15 Agriculture and Health 447
16.15.1 Food Contamination 448
16.16 Protecting the Food Supply from Attack 448
Literature Cited 449
Supplementary References 449
Questions and Problems 450
Chapter 17 Green Chemistry and Industrial Ecology 453
17.1 Changing the Bad Old Ways 453
17.2 Green Chemistry 454
17.2.1 Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry 454
17.3 Reduction of Risk： Hazard and Exposure 456
17.3.1 The Risks of Not Taking Risks 458
17.4 Waste Prevention and Green Chemistry 458
17.5 Green Chemistry and Synthetic Chemistry 459
17.5.1 Yield and Atom Economy 459
17.6 Feedstocks 461
17.6.1 Biological Feedstocks 461
17.7 Reagents 463
17.8 Stoichiometric and Catalytic Reagents 464
17.9 Media and Solvents 465
17.9.1 Water， the Greenest Solvent 466
17.9.2 Dense Phase Carbon Dioxide as a Solvent 467
17.9.3 Gas-Expanded Solvents 468
17.10 Enhancing Reactions 468
17.11 Industrial Ecology 470
17.12 The Five Major Components of an Industrial Ecosystem 472
17.13 Industrial Metabolism 474
17.14 Materials Flow and Recycling in an Industrial Ecosystem 475
17.15 The Kalundborg Industrial Ecosystem 475
17.16 Consideration of Environmental Impacts in Industrial Ecology 476
17.17 Life Cycles： Expanding and Closing the Materials Loop 477
17.17.1 Product Stewardship 479
17.17.2 Embedded Utility 479
17.18 Life-Cycle Assessment 480
17.18.1 Scoping in Life-Cycle Assessment 480
17.19 Consumable， Recyclable， and Service （Durable） Products 481
17.19.1 Desirable Characteristics of Consumables 481
17.19.2 Desirable Characteristics of Recyclables 481
17.19.3 Desirable Characteristics of Service Products 482
17.20 Design for Environment 482
17.20.1 Products， Processes， and Facilities 483
17.20.2 Key Factors in Design for Environment 483
17.20.3 Hazardous Materials in Design for Environment 484
17.21 Inherent Safety 484
17.21.1 Increased Safety with Smaller Size 485
17.22 Industrial Ecology and Ecological Engineering 486
Literature Cited 486
Supplementary References 486
Questions and Problems 488
Chapter 18 Resources and Sustainable Materials 491
18.1 Where to Get the Stuff We Need？ 491
18.2 Minerals in the Geosphere 492
18.2.1 Evaluation of Mineral Resources 492
18.3 Extraction and Mining 493
18.4 Metals 494
18.5 Metal Resources and Industrial Ecology 496
18.5.1 Aluminum 497
18.5.2 Chromium 497
18.5.3 Copper 498
18.5.4 Cobalt 498
18.5.5 Lead 498
18.5.6 Lithium 498
18.5.7 Potassium 499
18.5.8 Zinc 500
18.6 Nonmetal Mineral Resources 500
18.7 Phosphates 501
18.8 Sulfur 502
18.8.1 Gypsum 503
18.9 Wood： A Major Renewable Resource 503
18.10 Extending Resources through the Practice of Industrial Ecology 504
18.10.1 Metals 504
18.10.2 Plastics and Rubber 505
18.10.3 Lubricating Oil 506
Literature Cited 506
Supplementary References 506
Questions and Problems 507
Chapter 19 Sustainable Energy： The Key to Everything 509
19.1 Energy Problem 509
19.2 Nature of Energy 510
19.3 Sources of Energy Used in the Anthrosphere 511
19.4 Energy Devices and Conversions 513
19.4.1 Fuel Cells 516
19.5 Green Technology and Energy Conversion Efficiency 517
19.6 Energy Conservation and Renewable Energy Sources 518
19.7 Petroleum and Natural Gas 520
19.8 Coal 521
19.8.1 Coal Conversion 521
19.9 Carbon Sequestration for Fossil Fuel Utilization 523
19.10 Industrial Ecology for Energy and Chemicals 524
19.11 Nuclear Energy 526
19.11.1 Nuclear Fusion 528
19.12 Geothermal Energy 528
19.13 The Sun： An Ideal， Renewable Energy Source 529
19.14 Energy from Moving Air and Moving Water 531
19.14.1 Surprising Success of Wind Power 531
19.14.2 Energy from Moving Water 533
19.14.3 Energy from Moving Water without Dams 534
19.15 Biomass Energy 534
19.15.1 Ethanol Fuel 535
19.15.2 Biodiesel Fuel 535
19.15.3 Unrealized Potential of Lignocellulose Fuels 536
19.15.4 Biogas 539
19.16 Hydrogen as a Means to Store and Utilize Energy 540
19.17 Combined Power Cycles 540
19.18 A System of Industrial Ecology for Methane Production 541
Literature Cited 542
Supplementary References 542
Questions and Problems 543
Chapter 20 Nature， Sources， and Environmental Chemistry of Hazardous Wastes 545
20.1 Introduction 545
20.1.1 History of Hazardous Substances 545
20.1.2 Legislation 546
20.2 Classification of Hazardous Substances and Wastes 547
20.2.1 Characteristics and Listed Wastes 547
20.2.2 Hazardous Wastes 548
20.2.2.1 Hazardous Wastes and Air and Water Pollution Control 548
20.3 Sources of Wastes 549
20.3.1 Types of Hazardous Wastes 550
20.3.2 Hazardous Waste Generators 550
20.4 Flammable and Combustible Substances 551
20.4.1 Combustion of Finely Divided Particles 552
20.4.2 Oxidizers 552
20.4.3 Spontaneous Ignition 553
20.4.4 Toxic Products of Combustion 553
20.5 Reactive Substances 553
20.5.1 Chemical Structure and Reactivity 554
20.6 Corrosive Substances 555
20.6.1 Sulfuric Acid 556
20.7 Toxic Substances 556
20.7.1 Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure 556
20.8 Physical Forms and Segregation of Wastes 557
20.9 Environmental Chemistry of Hazardous Wastes 558
20.10 Physical and Chemical Properties of Hazardous Wastes 559
20.11 Transport， Effects， and Fates of Hazardous Wastes 559
20.11.1 Physical Properties of Wastes 560
20.11.2 Chemical Factors 560
20.11.3 Effects of Hazardous Wastes 560
20.11.4 Fates of Hazardous Wastes 561
20.12 Hazardous Wastes and the Anthrosphere 561
20.13 Hazardous Wastes in the Geosphere 562
20.14 Hazardous Wastes in the Hydrosphere 564
20.15 Hazardous Wastes in the Atmosphere 566
20.16 Hazardous Wastes in the Biosphere 567
20.16.1 Microbial Metabolism in Waste Degradation 567
20.16.2 Ecotoxicology of Hazardous Wastes 568
20.17 Hazardous Substances in Terrorism 569
20.17.1 Detection of Hazardous Substances 570
20.17.2 Removing Hazardous Agents 571
Literature Cited 571
Supplementary References 572
Questions and Problems 572
Chapter 21 Industrial Ecology for Waste Minimization， Utilization， and Treatment 575
21.1 Introduction 575
21.2 Waste Reduction and Minimization 575
21.3 Recycling 577
21.3.1 Examples of Recycling 578
21.3.2 Waste Oil Utilization and Recovery 578
21.3.2.1 Recycling Waste Oil 578
21.3.2.2 Waste Oil Fuel 579
21.3.3 Waste Solvent Recovery and Recycle 579
21.3.4 Recovery of Water from Wastewater 580
21.4 Physical Methods of Waste Treatment 580
21.4.1 Methods of Physical Treatment 581
21.4.1.1 Phase Separations 582
21.4.1.2 Phase Transition 582
21.4.1.3 Phase Transfer 583
21.4.1.4 Molecular Separation 584
21.5 Chemical Treatment： An Overview 584
21.5.1 Acid-Base Neutralization 584
21.5.1.1 Acid Recovery 584
21.5.2 Chemical Precipitation 585
21.5.2.1 Precipitation of Metals 585
21.5.2.2 Coprecipitation of Metals 586
21.5.3 Oxidation-Reduction 586
21.5.4 Electrolysis 587
21.5.5 Hydrolysis 588
21.5.6 Chemical Extraction and Leaching 588
21.5.7 Ion Exchange 589
21.6 Green Waste Treatment by Photolyis and Sonolysis 589
21.7 Thermal Treatment Methods 590
21.7.1 Incineration 591
21.7.1.1 Incinerable Wastes 591
21.7.2 Hazardous Waste Fuel 591
21.7.3 Incineration Systems 591
21.7.4 Types of Incinerators 592
21.7.5 Combustion Conditions 592
21.7.6 Effectiveness of Incineration 593
21.7.7 Wet Air Oxidation 593
21.7.8 UV-Enhanced Wet Oxidation 593
21.7.9 Destruction of Hazardous Wastes in Cement Manufacture 593
21.8 Biodegradation of Wastes 594
21.8.1 Biodegradability 594
21.8.2 Aerobic Treatment 595
21.8.3 Anaerobic Treatment 595
21.8.4 Reductive Dehalogenation 595
21.9 Phytoremediation 596
21.10 Land Treatment and Composting 596
21.10.1 Land Treatment 596
21.10.2 Composting 597
21.11 Preparation of Wastes for Disposal 597
21.11.1 Immobilization 597
21.11.2 Stabilization 597
21.11.3 Solidification 597
21.11.3.1 Sorption to a Solid Matrix Material 598
21.11.3.2 Thermoplastics and Organic Polymers 598
21.11.3.3 Vitrification 598
21.11.3.4 Solidification with Cement 599
21.11.3.5 Solidification with Silicate Materials 599
21.11.3.6 Encapsulation 599
21.11.4 Chemical Fixation 599
21.12 Ultimate Disposal of Wastes 600
21.12.1 Disposal Aboveground 600
21.12.2 Landfill 600
21.12.3 Surface Impoundment of Liquids 601
21.12.4 Deep-Well Disposal of Liquids 601
21.13 Leachate and Gas Emissions 601
21.13.1 Leachate 601
21.13.2 Hazardous Waste Leachate Treatment 602
21.13.3 Gas Emissions 602
21.14 In Situ Treatment 602
21.14.1 In Situ Immobilization 602
21.14.2 Vapor Extraction 603
21.14.3 Solidification In Situ 603
21.14.4 Detoxification In Situ 603
21.14.5 Permeable Bed Treatment 603
21.14.6 In Situ Thermal Processes 604
21.14.7 Soil Washing and Flushing 604
Literature Cited 604
Supplementary References 605
Questions and Problems 606
Chapter 22 Environmental Biochemistry 609
22.1 Biochemistry 609
22.1.1 Biomolecules 609
22.2 Biochemistry and the Cell 610
22.2.1 Major Cell Features 610
22.3 Proteins 611
22.3.1 Protein Structure 613
22.3.2 Denaturation of Proteins 614
22.4 Carbohydrates 614
22.5 Lipids 616
22.6 Enzymes 618
22.7 Nucleic Acids 620
22.7.1 Nucleic Acids in Protein Synthesis 623
22.7.2 Modified DNA 623
22.8 Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering 623
22.9 Metabolic Processes 624
22.9.1 Energy-Yielding Processes 624
22.10 Metabolism of Xenobiotic Compounds 625
22.10.1 Phase Ⅰ and Phase Ⅱ Reactions 625
Literature Cited 626
Supplementary References 626
Questions and Problems 626
Chapter 23 Toxicological Chemistry 629
23.1 Introduction to Toxicology and Toxicological Chemistry 629
23.1.1 Toxicology 629
23.1.2 Synergism， Potentiation， and Antagonism 631
23.2 Dose-Response Relationships 631
23.3 Relative Toxicities 632
23.3.1 Nonlethal Effects 632
23.4 Reversibility and Sensitivity 634
23.4.1 Hypersensitivity and Hyposensitivity 634
23.5 Xenobiotic and Endogenous Substances 634
23.6 Toxicological Chemistry 635
23.6.1 Toxicological Chemistry Defined 635
23.6.2 Toxicants in the Body 635
23.6.2.1 Phase Ⅰ Reactions 635
23.6.2.2 Phase Ⅱ Reactions 636
23.7 Kinetic Phase and Dynamic Phase 637
23.7.1 Kinetic Phase 637
23.7.2 Dynamic Phase 637
23.7.2.1 Primary Reaction in the Dynamic Phase 637
23.7.2.2 Biochemical Effects in the Dynamic Phase 638
23.7.2.3 Responses to Toxicants 639
23.8 Teratogenesis， Mutagenesis， Carcinogenesis， and Effects On the Immune and Reproductive Systems 639
23.8.1 Teratogenesis 639
23.8.2 Mutagenesis 639
23.8.2.1 Biochemistry of Mutagenesis 640
23.8.3 Carcinogenesis 641
23.8.3.1 Biochemistry of Carcinogenesis 642
23.8.3.2 Alkylating Agents in Carcinogenesis 642
23.8.4 Testing for Carcinogens 643
23.8.4.1 Bruce Ames Test 644
23.8.5 Immune System Response 644
23.8.6 Endocrine Disruption 644
23.9 Health Hazards 644
23.9.1 Assessment of Potential Exposure 645
23.9.2 Epidemiological Evidence 645
23.9.3 Estimation of Health Effects Risks 646
23.9.4 Risk Assessment 646
Literature Cited 646
Supplementary References 646
Questions and Problems 647
Chapter 24 Toxicological Chemistry of Chemical Substances 649
24.1 Introduction 649
24.1.1 ATSDR Toxicological Profiles 649
24.2 Toxic Elements and Elemental Forms 649
24.2.1 Ozone 649
24.2.2 White Phosphorus 651
24.2.3 Elemental Halogens 651
24.2.4 Heavy Metals 651
24.3 Toxic Inorganic Compounds 652
24.3.1 Cyanide 652
24.3.2 Carbon Monoxide 652
24.3.3 Nitrogen Oxides 653
24.3.4 Hydrogen Halides 653
24.3.4.1 Hydrogen Fluoride 653
24.3.4.2 Hydrogen Chloride 654
24.3.5 Interhalogen Compounds and Halogen Oxides 654
24.3.6 Inorganic Compounds of Silicon 654
24.3.7 Asbestos 655
24.3.8 Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds 655
24.3.9 Inorganic Compounds of Sulfur 655
24.3.10 Perchlorate 656
24.3.11 Organometallic Compounds 656
24.3.11.1 Organolead Compounds 656
24.3.11.2 Organotin Compounds 657
24.3.11.3 Carbonyls 657
24.3.11.4 Reaction Products of Organometallic Compounds 657
24.4 Toxicology of Organic Compounds 657
24.4.1 Alkane Hydrocarbons 657
24.4.2 Alkene and Alkyne Hydrocarbons 658
24.4.3 Benzene and Aromatic Hydrocarbons 658
24.4.3.1 Toluene 659
24.4.3.2 Naphthalene 659
24.4.3.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 659
24.4.4 Oxygen-Containing Organic Compounds 660
24.4.4.1 Oxides 660
24.4.4.2 Alcohols 660
24.4.5 Phenols 661
24.4.5.1 Aldehydes and Ketones 661
24.4.5.2 Carboxylic Acids 662
24.4.5.3 Ethers 662
24.4.5.4 Acid Anhydrides 662
24.4.5.5 Esters 662
24.4.6 Organonitrogen Compounds 663
24.4.6.1 Aliphatic Amines 663
24.4.6.2 Carbocyclic Aromatic Amines 664
24.4.6.3 Pyridine 664
24.4.6.4 Acrylamide： Toxic Potato Chips？ 664
24.4.6.5 Nitriles 665
24.4.6.6 Nitro Compounds 665
24.4.6.7 Nitrosamines 665
24.4.6.8 Isocyanates and Methyl Isocyanate 665
24.4.6.9 Organonitrogen Pesticides 665
24.4.7 Organohalide Compounds 666
24.4.7.1 Alkyl Halides 666
24.4.7.2 Alkenyl Halides 667
24.4.7.3 Aryl Halides 667
24.4.8 Organohalide Pesticides 668
24.4.8.1 TCDD 668
24.4.8.2 Chlorinated Phenols 669
24.4.9 Organosulfur Compounds 669
24.4.9.1 Sulfur Mustards 669
24.4.10 Organophosphorus Compounds 670
24.4.10.1 Organophosphate Esters 670
24.4.10.2 Phosphorothionate and Phosphorodithioate Ester Insecticides 670
24.4.10.3 Organophosphorus Military Poisons 671
24.5 Toxic Natural Products 671
Literature Cited 672
Supplementary References 672
Questions and Problems 673
Chapter 25 Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastewater 677
25.1 General Aspects of Environmental Chemical Analysis 677
25.1.1 Error and Quality Control 677
25.1.2 Water Analysis Methods 678
25.2 Classical Methods 678
25.3 Spectrophotometric Methods 679
25.3.1 Absorption Spectrophotometry 679
25.3.2 Atomic Absorption and Emission Analyses 680
25.3.3 Atomic Emission Techniques 682
25.4 Electrochemical Methods of Analysis 682
25.5 Chromatography 683
25.5.1 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 685
25.5.2 Chromatographic Analysis of Water Pollutants 686
25.5.3 Ion Chromatography 686
25.6 Mass Spectrometry 686
25.7 Analysis of Water Samples 687
25.7.1 Physical Properties Measured in Water 687
25.7.2 Water Sampling 687
25.7.2.1 Extractors 688
25.7.3 Water Sample Preservation 689
25.7.4 Total Organic Carbon in Water 689
25.7.5 Measurement of Radioactivity in Water 690
25.7.6 Biological Toxins 690
25.7.7 Summary of Water Analysis Procedures 690
25.8 Automated Water Analyses 692
25.9 Speciation 692
25.10 Emerging Contaminants in Water Analysis 693
25.11 Chiral Contaminants 694
Literature Cited 695
Supplementary References 695
Questions and Problems 696
Chapter 26 Analysis of Wastes and Solids 697
26.1 Introduction 697
26.2 Sample Digestion for Elemental Analysis 698
26.3 Analyte Isolation for Organics Analysis 698
26.3.1 Solvent Extraction 698
26.3.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 699
26.3.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction and Subcritical Water Extraction 699
26.4 Sample Cleanup 700
26.5 Sample Preparation for VOCs 701
26.6 Bioassay and Immunoassay Screening of Wastes 702
26.7 Determination of Chelating Agents 702
26.8 Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure 703
Literature Cited 704
Supplementary References 704
Questions and Problems 705
Chapter 27 Analysis of the Atmosphere and Air Pollutants 707
27.1 Atmospheric Monitoring 707
27.1.1 Air Pollutants Measured 707
27.2 Sampling 708
27.3 Methods of Analysis 709
27.4 Determination of Sulfur Dioxide 710
27.5 Nitrogen Oxides 711
27.6 Analysis of Oxidants 712
27.7 Analysis of Carbon Monoxide 713
27.8 Determination of Hydrocarbons and Organics 714
27.8.1 Determination of Specific Organics in the Atmosphere 714
27.9 Analysis of Particulate Matter 714
27.9.1 Filtration 714
27.9.2 Collection by Impactors 716
27.9.3 Particle Analysis 716
27.9.4 X-Ray Fluorescence 716
27.9.5 Determination of Lead in Particulate Matter 717
27.10 Direct Spec trophotometric Analysis of Gaseous Air Pollutants 718
Literature Cited 719
Supplementary References 720
Questions and Problems 720
Chapter 28 Analysis of Biological Materials and Xenobiotics 723
28.1 Introduction 723
28.2 Indicators of Exposure to Xenobiotics 723
28.3 Determination of Metals 725
28.3.1 Direct Analysis of Metals 725
28.3.2 Metals in Wet-Ashed Blood and Urine 725
28.3.3 Extraction of Metals for Atomic Absorption Analysis 725
28.4 Determination of Nonmetals and Inorganic Compounds 726
28.5 Determination of Parent Organic Compounds 726
28.6 Measurement of Phase Ⅰ and Phase Ⅱ Reaction Products 727
28.6.1 Phase Ⅰ Reaction Products 727
28.6.2 Phase Ⅱ Reaction Products 728
28.6.3 Mercapturates 729
28.7 Determination of Adducts 729
28.8 The Promise of Immunological Methods 730
Literature Cited 732
Supplementary References 732
Questions and Problems 733
Index 735