PART ONE Intellectual Framework and the Cultural Background 1
Foreign Policy and the International Environment 3
1. There Are Many Policymakers 6
2. Consensus versus Debate: Successive Periods of Policy 6
3. Reconciling Foreign Policy Goals: The Priority of Security 8
4. The Implications of Security's Preeminence 8
5. The Role of National Interests 10
6. Decision Making, Bureaucracies, and Rationality: Some Distinctions 12
7. The Nature of the State System and Its Implications 14
8. The Systems Effects of Policy Choices 16
9. Qualifications to the Argument 18
1O. Summing Up 20
2 The Unique American Experience 22
1. The Effects of Geographic Isolation 22
2. The Effects of Historical Experience 25
3. The Hundred Years' Peace (1815-1914) 28
4. U.S. Policy (1815-1914) 31
5. The Effects of the Domestic Environment: From Immigration 33
6. The Effects of the Domestic Environment: On the American Political Process 35
7. Summing Up 37
3 The American Approach to Problems 38
1. Attitudes About Government and Politics: Americans Know the Way 39
2. Attitudes About Government and Politics: Idealism Should Be Practical 41
3. Attitudes Toward the "Lessons of the Past" 42
4. Effects of These Attitudes on Foreign Affairs 42
5. The Conceptual Basis of the American Involvement in the Cold War 45
6. The Three Postwar Formulas of U.S. Policy 46
7. Applying the Containment Concept 47
8. The Formulas Lead to Vietnam 50
9. The Paucity of American Strategic Thought and Its Penalties 52
10. Summing Up 55
4 Phase 1: Designing Policy (The Cardinal Principles) 57
1. The Policy Process 58
2. The Cardinal Principles 63
3. Past-Future Linkages 63
4. Third-Party Influences 67
5. Relating the First Two Cardinal Principles 69
6. Counterbalancing National Interests 70
7. The Conservation of Enemies 72
8. Relating the Second Two Cardinal Principles and Linking Them to the First Two 73
9. Summing Up 75
5 Phase 2: Implementing Policy (The Operational Context) 76
1. Identify Actors: Who Is Involved? 76
2. Determine Objectives: What Do They Want? What Might We? 78
3. Analyze Capability: What Is the Operational Power Relationship? 82
4. Choose Orientation: What Involvement Is Necessary? 85
5. Summing Up 88
PART TWO How Washington Makes Foreign Policy 91
6 The President and Congress 93
1. Formal Factors: The President 96
2. Formal Factors: The Congress 99
3. The Growth of Congressional Assertiveness 101
4. Congress and International Agreements 102
5. Congress and Intelligence Operations 103
6. Congress and Military Force 105
7. Congress, Nuclear Nonproliferation, and Foreign Aid 108
8. Summing Up 109
7 Bureaucratic Politics 111
1. The Role of Standard Operating Procedures 112
2. Problems in Information Processing 114
3. Fragmentation 116
4. Bureaucratic Competition 118
5. Characteristics of Bureaucratic Policymaking 119
6. Higher-Level Decisions and Small Groups 123
7. The President and the Bureaucratic Process 125
8. Summing Up 127
8 Public Opinion, Interest Groups, and Policymakers 128
1. Five Characteristics of Public Opinion 129
2. The Role of the Mass Media 132
3. The Adequacy and Fairness Problem and Policymaker-Media Tensions 133
4. The Influence of Public Opinion 136
5. Interest Groups: The General Rule 138
6. Interest Groups: Exceptions to the Rule? 140
7. Summing Up 143
9 The Departmnet of state 145
1. Departmental Organization and Structure 146
2. The Secretary of State 146
3. The Second and Third Echelons 149
4. The Bureaus and the Associated Agencies 152
5. The Overseas Missions 154
6. The Department in Operation 157
7. Departmental Decision Making 159
8. Summing Up 161
10 The National Security System 163
1. The National Security Act 164
2. The Evolution of the Department of Defense 166
3. The Intelligence Community 168
4. The Cloak-and-Dagger Issue: Covert Operations 173
5. National Security Decision Making and Presidential Styles 175
6. American Policy, the Shah, and Khomeini: A Study in Confusion 182
7. Summing Up 185
PART THREE Design and Implementation: The American Policy Record 187
11 Extending the Security Perimeter 189
1. The First Century 189
2. Toward a Larger Role 192
3. A Watershed: The Spanish-American War 195
4. World War I 198
5. The Aborted Peace Settlement 201
6. The 1920s and 1930s: Unilateralism 203
7. The First Three Neutrality Acts 208
8. Summing Up 209
12 In Pursuit of a Global Role 210
1. War Clouds Gather 211
2. The Final Pre-World War ii Debates 213
3. World War ii: Political versus Military Issues 216
4. The Coming of the Cold War 220
5. Extending the Containment Perimeter 224
6. Summing Up 227
13 Berlin, Cuba, and Vietnam 229
1. The Berlin Crisis of 1958-1959 230
2. The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 232
3. The Road to the Vietnam War Commitment 235
4. The Sino-Soviet Split--Disregarded 240
5. The Tonkin Gulf Resolution and Commitment 241
6. Confusion at Three Levels 243
7. Nixon--and (Eventually) War's End 245
8. Summing Up 248
14 Detente and Afterwards 249
1. Nixon, Kissinger, and a New Approach 249
2. Rapprochement with China 250
3. Impact of the China Card on Soviet-American Relations 251
4. The Advent of Detente 253
5. Effects of D6tente on the Middle East 254
6. The Carter Administration 257
7. Evaluation 259
8. Summing Up 261
15 Postlude and Prelude 263
1. What Parts One, Two, and Three Argue and Why 263
2. American Style--Foreign Style 267
3. Looking Ahead at Part Four 270
PART FOUR Problems and Issues Facing the United States 273
16 United States-Soviet Relations 275
1. The Problem of U.S.-Soviet Relations 276
2. Alternative American Strategic Concepts of Soviet Behavior 277
3. A Soviet Perspective 280
4. A Corrected View of Soviet Behavior 283
5. Carter and Reagan Deal with the Soviets 284
6. Key Issues in U.S.-Soviet Relations 285
7. Summing Up 289
17 Europe the Divided Continent 291
1. Europe: Its Unity in Diversity 292
2. Three Interlinked Problems 294
3. Problem One: Europe's Arbitrary Division 296
4. Problem Two: The Advanced Soviet Position and Its Political-Military Implications 298
5. Problem Three: Lack of Uniformity of U.S.-European Interests 299
6. Issues in United States-European Relations: Europe's Division 305
7. Issues in United States-European Relations: The Soviet Threat 308
8. Issues in United States-European Relations: Diversityof Interests 310
9. Summing Up 311
18 On Its Own A Stable Asia? 312
1. The Strategic Problem: How to Ensure an Asian Security Balance 312
2. The Chinese Relationship 315
3. The Japanese Relationship 317
4. The Indian and Pakistani Relationship 318
5. Nixon-Kissinger-Ford: Designing a New Approach 321
6. Nixon-Kissinger-Ford: Implementing a New Approach 322
7. Carter and the Shift Toward a Lesser Presence 325
8. The Reagan Administration and Beyond 329
9. Summing Up 332
19 Area in Ferment: The Middle East 334
1. Five Interlinked Problems 335
2. Background: The Arab-Israeli Wars of 1956 and 1967 337
3. The Nixon-Ford Policy and Shuttle Diplomacy 342
4. The Rise of the PLO and the Lebanon Connection 345
5. Carter and the Camp David Accords 346
6. The Oil Problem and the Stability Problem 348
7. The Reagan Administration and Beyond 351
8. Summing Up 354
20 The Developing Nations: Africa and Latin America 357
1. Three Interlinked Problems 357
2. The Historical Legacy: Latin America 362
3. The Historical Legacy: Africa 364
4. African Affairs Under Nixon, Ford, and Carter 366
5. Latin American Affairs Under Nixon, Ford, and Carter 370
6. The Reagan Administration and Beyond 374
7. Summing Up 380
21 Mushrooming Technology and the Changing Global Environment 382
1. The Technological Revolution 383
2. The Quality of Life on Planet Earth 386
3. Terrorism 389
4. The Seas 391
5. Space 395
6. Summing Up 398
PART FIVE Policy for the Time Ahead 399
22 Conclusions and Evaluation 401
1. The Theory Reviewed 401
2. The Substantive Analysis Reviewed 403
3. East-West and Security Concerns 405
4. North-South and Economic Development Concerns 410
5. Final Thoughts 411
Index 413