Tables 54
Table 2-1：List of felicity conditions on the directive class 54
Table 2-2：Request strategies 66
Table 3-1：Social distance and dominance variation for each request situation 110
Table 4-1：Request strategies for the AM and CHN groups in the DCT 114
Table 4-2：Frequency of formal means of requests by the AM,IL and CHN groups 116
Table 4-3：Situations in each situation set 126
Table 4-4：Opting out strategy 126
Table 4-5：Direct strategy 127
Table 4-6：Conventionally indirect strategy 128
Table 4-7：Combined strategy 129
Table 4-8：Non-conventionally indirect strategy 129
Table 4-9：Cultural stratifications of strategy categories for all situations for groups AM,IL and CHN 130
Table 4-10：Combined strategies of requests 131
Table 4-11：+SD(Directness levels) 135
Table 4-12：-SD(Directness levels) 135
Table 4-13：Comparison of intra-groups in the use of strategies between +SD and -SD 136
Table 4-14：X=Y(Directness levels) 137
Table 4-15：X＞Y(Directness levels) 137
Table 4-16：X＜Y(Directness levels) 138
Table 4-17：Comparison of intra-groups in the use of strategies between X=Y,X＞Y and X＜Y 138
Table 4-18：Comparison between three groups in the case of request controllability 142
Table 4-19：Comparison of the age differences in the use of strategies 144
Table 4-20：Sexual differences of request strategies for the AM group in three situations 145
Table 4-21：Sexual differences of request strategies for the IL group in three situations 145
Table 4-22：Sexual differences of request strategies for the CHN group in three situations 146
Table 4-23：Sexual differences of request strategies in three situations 146
Table 4-24：Comparison of three groups in the use of modification 150
Table 4-25：Comparison of pre-modification of requests among three groups 153
Table 4-26：Comparison of three groups in the use of tokens 156
Table 4-27：S3.Notes(-SD,X=Y) 158
Table 4-28：S12.Train(-SD,X＜Y) 160
Table 4-29：S6.Policeman(+SD,X＞Y) 162
Table 4-30：Comparison of three groups in request responses 197
Table 4-31：Responses to requests in S5 ＆ S9(+D)situations by the AM group 199
Table 4-32：Responses to requests in S5 ＆ S9(+D)situations by the IL group 200
Table 4-33：Responses to requests in S5 ＆ S9(+D)situations by the CHN group 200
Table 4-34：Responses to requests in S3 ＆ S12(-SD)situations by the AM group 201
Table 4-35：Responses to requests in S3 ＆ S12(-SD)situations by the IL group 201
Table 4-36：Responses to requests in S3 ＆ S12(-SD)situations by the CHN group 202
Table 4-37：Responses to requests in S1 ＆ S3(X=Y)situations by the AM group 203
Table 4-38：Responses to requests in S1 ＆ S3(X=Y)situations by the IL group 203
Table 4-39：Responses to requests in S1 ＆ S3(X=Y)situations by the CHN group 204
Table 4-40：Responses to requests in S4 ＆ S7(X＜Y)situations by the AM group 204
Table 4-41：Responses to requests in S4 ＆ S7(X＜Y)situations by the IL group 205
Table 4-42：Responses to requests in S4 ＆ S7(X＜Y) situations by the CHN group 205
Table 4-43：Responses to requests in S6 ＆ S8(X＞Y)situations by the AM group 206
Table 4-44：Responses to requests in S6 ＆ S8(X＞Y)situations by the IL 206
Table 4-45：Responses to requests in S6 ＆ S8(X＞Y)situations by the CHN group 207
Figures 25
Fig.2-1：Different communicative styles 25
Fig.2-2：An old lady or a young lady 28
Fig.2-3：The pragmatic continuum:language-culture 30
Fig.2-4：Speech act classification in terms of strategies 38
Fig.2-5：Causal relation of acts 41
Fig.2-6：Indirect commands with two responses 50
Fig.2-7：Force dynamics model 53
Fig.2-8：Classification of requestives 55
Fig.2-9：Modifications of requests 70
Fig.2-10：Principles and maxims of interaction 80
Fig.2-11：Possible strategies for doing FTAs 81
Fig.2-12：Scale of politeness 89
Fig.4-1：Mapping of input to output in OT grammar 180
Fig.4-2：Optimal choice of request strategies 180
Fig.4-3：Grammaticalization process 184
Fig.4-4：Apology classifications 212
Fig.5-1：Comparison of compliment responding strategies between Americans and the Chinese 228
Fig.5-2：Facial expressions 241
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Orientation of the Title 2
1.2 Motivations of the Present Study 4
1.3 The Concept and Criteria of Requests 6
1.4 Intonation of Speech Acts 9
1.5 The Nature of the Present Study 11
1.6 Propositional Opacity of Requests 15
1.7 Methods 16
1.8 The Aims and Hypotheses of the Present Study 17
1.9 Layout and Scope of the Present Study 19
1.10 Summary 20
Chapter 2 Theoretical Background to the Contrastive Study of Requests in English and Chinese 21
2.1 Introduction 22
2.2 Pragmatics:Language Use in Contexts 22
2.3 Cross-cultural Pragmatics 24
2.4 Sociopragmatics 29
2.5 Interlanguage Pragmatics 31
2.6 Metapragmatics 33
2.7 Interpersonal Relationship Studies 36
2.8 Linguistic Strategies 38
2.9 Speech Act Theories 40
2.10 Direct and Indirect Speech Acts 46
2.11 Direct ＆ Indirect Speech Acts and Politeness 50
2.12 Empirically-based Cognitive Model of Speech Acts 52
2.13 Request Classification and Request Strategies 54
2.13.1 Request Classification 54
2.13.2 Formal Means of Requests 56
2.13.3 Structural Components of Requests 63
2.13.4 Request Strategy:a Functional Perspective 64
2.13.5 Modifications of Requests 69
2.13.5.1 Internal Modifications 70
2.13.5.2 External Modifications 74
2.14 Politeness Theories 77
2.15 Politeness of Requests 85
2.16 Literature Review of Request Studies by Chinese Scholars 90
2.17 Summary 94
Chapter 3 Request Data Collection:Design and Methodology 95
3.1 Introduction 96
3.2 Examples of Requests in English and Chinese in the Actual Discourse 96
3.3 Subjects and Procedure 103
3.4 The Questionnaire 105
3.4.1 The Discourse Completion Test 105
3.4.2 Modifications of the DCT for the Present Study 108
3.5 Summary 110
Chapter 4 Analysis and Discussion of the Results 112
4.1 Introduction 113
4.2 Request Forms in English and Chinese 113
4.2.1 Similarities 114
4.2.2 Differences 116
4.3 Situational Variations and Situational Sets in the Use of Strategies 121
4.3.1 Situational Variations in the Use of Strategies 121
4.3.1.1 The AM Group 121
4.3.1.2 The IL Group 123
4.3.1.3 The CHN Group 124
4.3.2 Distribution of Main Request Strategy Categories in the Six Situation Sets 126
4.3.3 Cross-cultural Differences in the Interaction 130
4.3.4 Summary 132
4.4 Major Variables in the Use of Request Strategy 132
4.4.1 Social Distance and Dominance 133
4.4.1.1 Social Distance 134
4.4.1.2 Dominance 136
4.4.2 Controllability of Acts 139
4.4.2.1 High Controllability 141
4.4.2.2 Low Controllability 141
4.4.3 Age 142
4.4.3.1 The Same Age 143
4.4.3.2 The Younger to the Older 143
4.4.3.3 The Older to the Younger 143
4.4.3.4 Summary 143
4.4.4 Sex 145
4.4.4.1 The AM Group 145
4.4.4.2 The IL Group 145
4.4.4.3 The CHN Group 146
4.4.4.4 Summary 146
4.5 Modifications of Requests 149
4.5.1 The AM Group 149
4.5.2 The IL Group 149
4.5.3 The CHN Group 150
4.5.4 Summary 150
4.6 Pre-modification of Requests 151
4.6.1 The AM Group 151
4.6.2 The IL Group 152
4.6.3 The CHN Group 152
4.6.4 Summary 153
4.7 Tokens Used in the Requests among the Three Groups 154
4.7.1 The AM Group 155
4.7.2 The IL Group 155
4.7.3 The CHN Group 155
4.7.4 Summary 155
4.8 Request Perspectives 156
4.8.1 Introduction 156
4.8.2 In Situation(-SD,X=Y) 158
4.8.3 In Situation(-SD,X＜Y) 159
4.8.4 In Situation(+SD,X＞Y) 161
4.8.5 Summary 163
4.9 Initiating Markers of Requests 164
4.9.1 Address Form 164
4.9.2 "Excuse me"and"Sorry" 166
4.9.3 The Typical Request Markers"Please"and“请” 168
4.9.3.1 The AM Group 169
4.9.3.2 The IL Group 170
4.9.3.3 The CHN Group 171
4.9.3.4 Summary 172
4.10 Other Inferring Strategies Used in the Requesting Action 173
4.11 Special Strategies of Requests——A Metonymic Approach 176
4.12 The Disease to Please 177
4.13 Tentative Analyses of the Common Features of Request Production 179
4.14 Responses to Requests 192
4.14.1 Introduction 192
4.14.2 The AM Group 196
4.14.3 The IL Group 196
4.14.4 The CHN Group 197
4.14.5 Summary 197
4.14.6 Social Distance,Dominance and Sex in the Responses 199
4.14.6.1 Social Distance 199
4.14.6.2 Dominance 203
4.14.6.3 Sex 208
4.15 Tentative Analyses of the Common Features of Request Responses 209
4.16 From Requests to Apologies 211
4.17 Summary 213
Chapter 5 Conclusions 214
5.1 Introduction 215
5.2 Major Findings 215
5.3 Tentative Analyses from the Cultural Perspective 221
5.4 Chinese Politeness from Responding to Compliments 226
5.5 Pragmatic Tact in Language Use 228
5.6 Cross-cultural Pragmatic Failure and Pragmatic Competence Development in the ForeignLanguage Teaching 230
5.6.1 Cross-cultural Pragmatic Failure 231
5.6.2 Pragmatic Competence and its Teachability 233
5.7 Speculations about the Weaknesses of this Study 239
5.7.1 The C-constituting Model of Communication 240
5.7.2 Nonverbal Language 241
5.7.3 Sequences of Speech Acts 242
5.7.4 Suggested Future Research Dimensions 243
5.8 Conclusions 244
Appendix Ⅰ：A Glossary in English and Chinese 245
Appendix Ⅱ：Questionnaire of requests (the English version) 255
Appendix Ⅲ：Questionnaire of requests(the Chinese version) 258
Appendix Ⅳ：Idiomatic Expressions of Requests in English 261
Appendix Ⅴ：Idiomatic Expressions of Requests in Chinese 265
Appendix Ⅵ：Dr.Braiker's 21 Day Action Plan to Cure People-Pleasing Disease 267
Bibliography 271