Introduction 1
1．The Scope of Study 2
2．Significance of the Research 3
3．Literature Review 5
4．Thesis Contribution 17
5．Methodology and Sources 17
6．Organization 21
Chapter 1 Theories on International Trade 23
1．Mercantilism 23
2．Free Trade 26
2.1 Classical Trade Theory 27
2.2 Neoclassical Trade Theory 33
3．Protectionism 35
3.1 The Infant-Industry Argument 37
3.2 The Fair Trade Argument 42
4．Political Considerations of International Trade 46
4.1 Building a Liberal Trading System 47
4.2 Backsliding from Liberal Trade Principles 47
4.3 Trade as a Foreign Policy Tool 48
Chapter 2 The Formulation and Execution of American Trade Policy 54
1．The Executive Branch 55
1.1 The President 56
1.2 The Executive Office 57
1.3 The Departments 59
1.4 The Agencies 62
1.5 Interagency Coordinating Groups 64
2．The Legislative Branch 65
2.1 The Structure 65
2.2 Legislative Process 68
2.3 Committees 69
2.4 Authority and Power 71
3．The Private Sector 73
3.1 Types of Organizations 73
3.2 Activities 76
Chapter 3 Trade Policy Prior to 1934 79
1．Trade Policy Before the Civil War(1789-1860) 80
2．Trade Policy Between 1861 and 1890 87
3．Trade Policy Between 1891 and 1930 92
4．The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act of 1930 98
5．Conclusion 101
Chapter 4 The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act of 1934 105
1．International Setting 106
1.1 Trade Barriers in the 1930s 108
1.2 The Effects of the Trade Barriers 111
1.3 Breakdown of International Efforts 112
2．Domestic Context 115
3．The Administration's Proposal 118
4．Congressional Handling of the RTAA 121
4.1 Congressional Debate 121
4.2 Realignment of Congressional Trade Coalitions 128
5．Implementing the RTAA 137
6．Conclusion 140
Chapter 5 The Trade Expansion Act of 1962 146
1．International Context 148
2．Domestic Context:the Influence of Protectionism 152
3．The Administration's Proposal and Persuasive Campaign 157
4．Congressional Handling of the Administration's Proposal 161
4.1 Passage of the Trade Expansion Act of 1962 165
4.2 Innovative Features of the New Legislation 168
5．Application of Escape Clause 169
5.1 The Origin of the American Escape Clause 170
5.2 The Development of Escape Clause from 1951 to 1973 171
5.3 Section 201 of the Trade Act of 1974 175
5.4 The Application of Section 201(1975-2004） 179
6．Conclusion 185
Chapter 6 The Trade Act of 1974 194
1．International Context 195
1.1 The Rise of Japan 195
1.2 The"Oil Shock"of 1973 196
2．Domestic Context 198
2.1 Stagflation 198
2.2 The Rising Tide of New Protectionism 200
3．The Administration's Proposal 203
4．Congressional Handling of the Administration's Proposal 205
4.1 House Action on the Bill 205
4.2 Senate Action on the Bill 208
5．Application of Section 301 213
5.1 History of Section 301 213
5.2 The Objectives of Section 301 214
5.3 The Substantive Elements of Section 301 215
5.4 International Law and Section 301 216
5.5 The Application of Section 301(1975-1986） 217
6．Conclusion 224
Chapter 7 The Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988 230
1．Global Context 232
1.1 The Pipeline Sanctions 233
1.2 The Japanese Challenge 236
2．Domestic Context 237
2.1 Mounting Political Pressure 238
2.2 Interbranch Discontent 240
2.3 The Administration's Policy Shift 244
3．The Legislation of 1988 Omnibus Trade and Competitivenss Act 245
4．Application of Super 301 and Special 301 249
4.1 Super 301 250
4.1.1 Super 301 Process 251
4.1.2 Cases of Application 252
4.2 Special 301 254
4.2.1 Special 301 Process 255
4.2.2 Cases of Application 256
4.3 Assessing Section 301 Cases 260
5．Conclusion 262
Chapter 8 The Trade Act of 2002 267
1．Global Context 268
1.1 Anti-WTO Backlash 268
1.2 Surge of Regional Trade Agreements 270
2．Domestic Context 273
3．Legislation of TPA 276
3.1 The House Vote 279
3.2 The Senate Vote 280
3.3 The Conference Compromise and Final Passage 281
4．Application of TPA 282
5．Conclusion 285
Conclusion 290
Bibliography 298
Appendix 323