Chapter One Introduction 1
1.1 Research background 2
1.2 Rationale for the study 4
1.3 Purpose of the study 6
1.4 Research questions 7
1.5 Significance of the study 7
1.6 Layout of the dissertation 8
1.7 Chapter summary 10
Chapter Two Literature Review 11
2.1 The nature of reading 11
2.2 Models of the reading process 12
2.2.1 Bottom-up model 12
2.2.2 Top-down model 13
2.2.3 Interactive model 13
2.2.4 Schema theory 14
2.2.5 Bruer's cognitive model of reading process 15
2.3 Different modes of reading 16
2.4 Factors affecting reading comprehension 18
2.4.1 Reader attributes 18
2.4.2 Skill factors 22
2.4.3 Text characteristics 24
2.4.4 Method effects 27
2.5 Reading tasks 27
2.5.1 Definitions of task 27
2.5.1.1 Language learning task 28
2.5.1.2 Language using task 28
2.5.1.3 Language assessment task 29
2.5.1.4 Definition of reading task in this dissertation 29
2.5.2 Task difficulty dimensions 30
2.5.2.1 Robinson's model of task complexity 30
2.5.2.2 Skehan's model of task difficulty 31
2.5.2.3 An operational linguistic model of task difficulty 33
2.5.2.4 'Sources of variation'from Bachman's perspective 35
2.5.3 Exploration into multiple-choice reading task difficulty 38
2.5.3.1 Readability studies 38
2.5.3.2 Other approaches 41
2.5.3.3 Interpretation of reading task difficulty in this research 46
2.6 Chapter summary 46
Chapter Three Research Methodology 48
3.1 A proposed framework for TEM-4 reading task difficulty analysis 48
3.1.1 Introduction to the framework 49
3.1.2 Profile of new framework 50
3.1.3 Definitions and explanations of key terms 57
3.2 Research questions 63
3.3 Research instruments 64
3.3.1 Rating instrument 64
3.3.2 Researeh materials 66
3.4 Participants 66
3.4.1 Instrument raters 67
3.4.2 Test takers 67
3.5 Data collection 68
3.5.1 Rated variables 68
3.5.2 Counted variables 69
3.5.3 Mathematically calculated variables 69
3.5.4 Data preparation and management 69
3.6 Data analysis procedures 71
3.6.1 Reliability of ratings 71
3.6.2 Descriptive statistical analysis 71
3.6.3 Pair-wise correlation 72
3.6.4 Exploratory factor analyses(EFA) 72
3.6.5 Confirmatory factor analyses(CFA) 73
3.6.6 Multiple regression(MR) 74
3.7 Chapter summary 74
Chapter Four Results and Discussions 76
4.1 Reliability of ratings 76
4.2 Descriptive statistics of reading test in TEM-4 2005 and 2006 77
4.3 Standardization of the 85 variables 82
4.4 Pair-wise correlation 82
4.5 Exploratory factor analyses 87
4.6 Confirmatory factor analyses 92
4.7 Multiple regression 100
4.8 Chapter summary 103
Chapter Five Conclusions 104
5.1 Summary of findings 104
5.2 Theoretical implications 108
5.3 Methodological implications 109
5.4 Implications for language testing practice 110
5.5 Limitations of the study 111
5.6 Suggestions for further research 112
5.7 Chapter summary 113
References 114
Appendix A Rating instrument for TEM-4 reading characteristics 126
Appendix B T score descriptive statistics for task characteristic variables 147
Appendix C Pair-wise correlations between item difficulty and reading task characteristic variables 151
Appendix D Reading comprehension section of the 2005 TEM-4 158
Appendix E Reading comprehension section of the 2006 TEM-4 167