Ⅰ．EVOLUTION OF LIFE IN RELATION TO CLIMATIC AND GEOLOGICAL CHANGE 1
1．The need for generality in zoology 1
2．What do we mean by the life of an animal? 2
3．Living things tend to preserve themselves 3
4．What do we mean by awareness of life? 5
5．The influence of environment on life 7
6．What is it that heredity transmits? 8
7．The increasing complexity of life 9
8．The progression of life from the water to more difficult environments 9
9．Changes of climate and geological periods 11
(1) Changes of level of the continents 11
(2) Changes of climate 13
(3) Geological time 16
(4) Classification of geological history 18
10．Summary 21
Ⅱ．THE GENERAL PLAN OF CHORDATE ORGANIZATION:AMPHIOXUS 23
1．The variety of chordate life 23
2．Classification of chordates 24
3．Amphioxus,a generalized chordate 24
4．Movement of amphioxus 26
5．Skeletal structures of amphioxus 29
6．Skin of amphioxus 29
7．Mouth and pharynx and the control of feeding 30
8．Circulation 33
9．Excretory system of amphioxus 35
10．Nervous system 36
11．Gonads and development of amphioxus 41
12．Amphioxus as a generalized chordate 46
Ⅲ．THE ORIGIN OF CHORDATES FROM FILTER FEEDING ANIMALS 47
1．Invertebrate relatives of the chordates 47
2．Subphylum Hemichordata (= Stomochordata) 50
3．Class Pterobranchia 58
4．Subphylum Tunicata．Sea squirts 60
5．Development of ascidians 66
6．Various forms of tunicate 69
7．Class Ascidiacea． 70
8．Class Thaliacea 70
9．Class Larvacea 72
10．The formation of the chordates 74
Ⅳ．THE VERTEBRATES WITHOUT JAWS．LAMPREYS 81
1．Classification 81
2．General features of vertebrates 81
3．Agnatha 83
4．Lampreys 83
5．Skeleton of lampreys 85
6．Alimentary canal of lampreys 88
7．Blood system of lampreys 91
8．Urinogenital system of lampreys 93
9．Nervous system of lampreys 97
10．The pineal eyes 103
11．Pituitary body and hypophysical sac 106
12．Lateral line organs of lampreys 108
13．Vestibular organs of lampreys 109
14．Paired eyes of lampreys 110
15．Skin photoreceptors 111
16．Habits and life-history of lampreys 112
17．The ammocoete larva 114
18．Races of lampreys,a problem in systematics 119
19．Hag-fishes,order Myxinoidea 122
20．Fossil Agnatha,the earliest-known vertebrates 125
Ⅴ．THE APPEARANCE OF JAWS．THE ORGANIZATION OF THE HEAD 131
1．The elasmobranchs:introduction 131
2．The swimming of fishes 133
3．Equilibrium of fishes in water;the functions of the fins 136
4．Skin of elasmobranchs 141
5．The skull and branchial arches 142
6．The jaws 145
7．Segmentation of the vertebrate head 148
8．The pro-otic somites and eyemuscles 149
9．The cranial nerves of elasmobranchs 152
10．Respiration 157
11．The gut of elasmobranchs 158
12．The circulatory system 159
13．Urino-genital system 162
14．Endocrine glands of elasmobranchs 164
15．Nervous system 167
16．Receptor-organs of elasmobranchs 170
17．Autonomic nervous system 173
Ⅵ．EVOLUTION AND ADAPTIVE RADIATION OF ELASMOBRANCHS 175
1．Characteristics of elasmobranchs 175
2．Classification 175
3．Palaeozoic elasmobranchs 176
4．Mesozoic sharks 180
5．Modern sharks 180
6．Skates and rays 182
7．Chimaera and the bradyodonts 184
8．Tendencies in elasmobranch evolution 185
9．The earliest Gnathostomes,Placoderms 186
Ⅶ．THE MASTERY OF THE WATER．BONY FISHES 190
1．Introduction:the success of the bony fishes 190
2．The trout 191
3．The skull of bony fishes 193
4．Respiration 196
5．Vertebral column and fins of bony fishes 199
6．Alimentary canal 201
7．Air-bladder 301
8．Circulatory system 201
9．Urinogenital system and osmoregulation 202
10．Races of trout and salmon and their breeding habits 204
11．Endocrine glands of bony fishes 206
12．Brain of bony fishes 209
13．Receptors for life in the water 212
14．Eyes 212
15．Ear and hearing of fishes 216
16．Sound production in fishes 218
17．The lateral line organs of fishes 218
18．Chemoreceptors．Taste and smell 220
19．Touch 222
20．Autonomic nervous system 222
21．Behaviour patterns of fishes 225
Ⅷ．THE EVOLUTION OF BONY FISHES 228
1．Classification 228
2．Order 1．Palaeoniscoidei 228
3．Order 2．Acipenseroidei 234
4．Superorder 2．Holostei 234
5．Superorder 3．Teleostei 236
6．Analysis of evolution of the Actinopterygii 237
Ⅸ．THE ADAPTIVE RADIATION OF BONY FISHES 244
1．Swimming and locomotion 244
2．Various body forms and swimming habits in teleosts 248
3．Structure of mouth and feeding-habits of bony fishes 251
4．Protective mechanisms of bony fishes 252
5．Scales and other surface armour 252
6．Spines and poison glands 253
7．Electric organs 253
8．Luminous organs 254
9．Colours of fishes 255
10．Colour change in teleosts 258
Ⅹ．LUNG-FISHES 268
1．Classification 268
2．Crossopterygians 268
3．Osteolepids 268
4．Coelacanths 271
5．Fossil Dipnoi 273
6．Modern lung-fishes 275
Ⅺ．FISHES AND MAN 280
Ⅻ．TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATES:AMPHIBIA 296
1．Classification 296
2．Amphibia 296
3．The frogs 298
4．Skin of Amphibia 298
5．Colours of Amphibia 299
6．Vertebral column of Amphibia 303
7．Evolution and plan of the limbs of Amphibia 307
8．Shoulder girdle of Amphibia 309
9．Pelvic girdle of Amphibia 312
10．The limbs of Amphibia 313
11．The back and belly muscles of Amphibia 318
12．The limb muscles of Amphibia 322
13．The skull of Stegocephalia 325
14．The skull of modern Amphibia 328
15．Respiration in Amphibia 332
16．Respiration in the frog 333
17．Respiratory adaptations in various amphibians 334
18．Vocal appara tus 334
19．Circulatory system of Amphibia 335
20．Lymphatic system of Amphibia 338
21．The blood of Amphibia 339
22．Urinogenital system of Amphibia 340
23．Digestive system of Amphibia 342
24．Nervous system of Amphibia 344
25．Skin receptors 349
26．The eyes of Amphibia 350
27．The ear of Amphibia 353
28．Behaviour of Amphibia 354
ⅩⅢ．EVOLUTION AND ADAPTIVE RADIATION OF AMPHIBIA 356
1．The earliest Amphibia 356
2．Terrestrial Palaeozoic Amphibia．Embolomeri and Rhachitomi 357
3．Aquatic Amphibia of the later Palaeozoic 359
4．Tendencies in the evolution of fossil Amphibia 362
5．Newts and Salamanders．Subclass Urodela 364
6．Frogs and Toads．Subclass Anura 365
7．Subclass Apoda (= Gymnophiona = Caecilia) 366
8．Adaptive radiation and parallel evolution in modern Amphibia 366
9．Can Amphibia be said to be higher animals than fishes? 367
ⅩⅣ．LIFE ON LAND:THE REPTILES 369
1．Classification 369
2．Reptilia 371
3．The organization of reptiles 372
4．Skin of reptiles 373
5．Posture,locomotion,and skeleton 373
6．Feeding and digestion 378
7．Respiration,circulation,and excretion 378
8．Reproduction of reptiles 380
9．Nervous system and receptors of reptiles 383
ⅩⅤ．EVOLUTION OF THE REPTILES 386
1．The earliest reptile populations,Anapsida 386
2．Classification of reptiles 391
3．Order 1．Chelonia,392 392
4．Subclass Synaptosauria 399
5．Order Ichthyopterygia 401
6．Subclass Lepidosauria 401
7．Order Rhynchocephalia 402
8．Order Squamata 404
9．Suborder Lacertilia 407
10．Suborder Ophidia 411
11．Superorder Archosauria 416
12．Order Pseudosuchia 417
13．Order Phytosauria 417
14．Order Crocodilia 418
15．The ＇Terrible Lizards＇,Dinosaurs 421
16．Order Saurischia 422
17．Order Ornithischia 424
18．Order Pterosauria 426
19．Conclusions from study of evolution of the reptiles 429
ⅩⅥ．LIFE IN THE AIR:THE BIRDS 431
1．Features of bird life 431
2．Bird numbers and variety 431
3．The skin and feathers 432
4．Colours of birds 436
5．The skeleton of the bird．Sacral and sternal girders 437
6．The sacral girder and legs 440
7．Skeleton of the wings 447
8．Wing muscles 449
9．Principles of bird flight 450
10．Wing shape 452
11．Wing area and loading 452
12．Aspect ratio 453
13．Wing tips,slots,and camber 453
14．Flapping flight 455
15．Soaring flight 458
16．Soaring on up-currents 458
17．Use of vertical wind variations 460
18．Speed of flight 461
19．Take-off and landing 462
20．The skull in birds 464
21．The jaws,beak,and feeding mechanisms 464
22．Digestive system of birds 468
23．Circulatory system 470
24．Respiration 471
25．Excretory system 474
26．Reproductive system 475
27．The brain of birds 477
28．Functioning of the brain in birds 479
29．The eyes of birds 482
30．The ear of birds 488
31．Other receptors 490
ⅩⅦ．BIRD BEHAVIOUR 491
1．Habitat selection 491
2．Food selection 491
3．Recognition and social behaviour 492
4．Bird migration and homing 493
5．The stimulus to migration 495
6．The breeding-habits of birds 496
7．Courtship and display 497
8．Bird territory 503
9．Mutual courtship 504
10．Nest-building 505
11．Shape and colour of the eggs 507
12．Brooding and care of the young 507
ⅩⅧ．THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF BIRDS 509
1．Classification 509
2．Origin of the birds 510
3．Jurassic birds and the origin of flight 510
4．Cretaceous birds．Superorder Odontognathae 513
5．Flightless birds．Superorder Palaeognathae 514
6．Penguins．Superorder Impennae 515
7．Modern birds．Superorder Neognathae 516
8．Tendencies in the evolution of birds 522
9．Darwin＇s finches 524
10．Birds on other oceanic islands 530
11．The development of variety of bird life 532
ⅩⅨ．THE ORIGIN OF MAMMALS 533
1．Classification 533
2．The characteristics of mammals 534
3．Mammals of the Mesozoic 536
4．Mammal-like reptiles,Synapsida 539
5．Order Pelycosauria (= Theromorpha) 540
6．Order Therapsida 541
7．Mammals from the Trias to the Cretaceous 545
8．Original cusp-pattern of teeth of mammals 548
9．Egg-laying mammals．Subclass Prototheria (Monotremata) 549
ⅩⅩ．MARSUPIALS 557
1．Marsupial characteristics 557
2．Classification of marsupials 562
3．Opossums 563
4．Carnivorous marsupials 565
5．Marsupial ant-eaters and other types 566
6．Phalangers,wallabies,and kangaroos 566
7．Significance of marsupial isolation 568
ⅩⅪ．EVOLUTION OF PLACENTAL MAMMALS AND ITS RELATION TO THE CLIMATIC AND GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE CENOZOIC 569
1．Eutherians at the end of the Mesozoic 569
2．The end of the Mesozoic 569
3．Divisions and climates of the Tertiary Period 571
4．Geographical regions 572
5．The earliest eutherians 574
6．Definition of a eutherian (placental) mammal 575
7．Evolutionary trends of eutherians 575
8．Conservative eutherians 577
9．Divisions and classification of Eutheria 577
ⅩⅫ．INSECTIVORES,BATS,AND EDENTATES 581
1．Order 1．Insectivora 581
2．Order Chiroptera．Bats 585
3．Order Dermoptera 592
4．Order Edentata 592
5．Armadillos 595
6．Ant-eaters and sloths 597
7．Order Pholidota:pangolins 601
ⅩⅩⅢ．PRIMATES 602
1．Classification 602
2．Characters of primates 603
3．Divisions of the primates 607
4．Lemurs and lorises 609
5．Fossil Prosimians 613
6．Tarsiers 614
7．Characteristics of Anthropoidea 617
8．New World monkeys,Ceboidea 620
ⅩⅩⅣ．MONKEYS，APES，AND MEN 623
1．Common origin of Old World monkeys,apes,and men 623
2．Old World monkeys,Cercopithecoidea 623
3．The great apes:Pongidae 626
4．The ancestry of man 633
5．Brain of apes and man 633
6．The posture and gait of nun 634
7．The limbs of man 635
8．The skull and jaws of man 637
9．Rate of development of man 640
10．Growth of human populations 641
11．Time of development of the Hominidae 641
12．The Australopithecinae 643
13．Early Hominids,Pithecanthropus 645
14．Man 646
15．Human cultures 648
ⅩⅩⅤ．RODENTS AND RABBITS 652
1．Characteristics of rodent life 652
2．Classification 653
3．Order RoJenria 654
4．Order Lagomorpha 660
5．Fluctuations in numbers of mammals 663
ⅩⅩⅥ．WHALES 666
ⅩⅩⅦ．CARNIVORES 677
1．Affinities of carnivores and ungulates:Cohort Ferungulata 677
2．Classification 679
3．Order Carnivora 680
4．The Cats 680
5．Suborder Creodonta 683
6．Suborder Fissipeda 684
7．Suborder Pinnepedia 691
ⅩⅩⅧ．PROTOUNGULATES 694
1．Origin of the ungulates 694
2．Ungulate characters 695
3．Classification 699
4．Superorder Protoungulata 700
5．South American ungulates．Order Notoun 701
6．Order Litopterna 703
7．Order Astrapotheria 703
8．Order Tubulidentata 704
ⅩⅩⅨ．ELEPHANTS AND RELATED FORMS 706
1．＇Near-ungulates＇,superorder Paenungulata 706
2．Classification 706
3．Order Hyracoidea 707
4．Elephants．Order Proboscidea 709
5．Order Pantodonta (Amblypoda) 717
6．Order Dinocerata 718
7．Order Pyrotheria 718
8．Order Embrithopoda 718
9．Order Sirenia 720
ⅩⅩⅩ．PERISSODACTYLS 722
1．Perissodactyl characteristics 722
2．Classification 723
3．Perissodactyl radiation 724
4．Suborder Ceratomorpha,tapirs and rhinoceroses 727
5．Rhinoceroses 728
6．Brontotheres (Titanotheres) 730
7．Chalicotheres (= Ancylopoda) 731
8．Palaeotheres 732
9．Horses 732
10．Allometry in the evolution of horses 737
11．Rate of evolution of horses 738
12．Conclu sions from the study of the evolution of horses 739
ⅩⅩⅪ．ARTIODACTYLS 741
1．Characteristics of artiodactyls 741
2．Classification 745
3．The evolution of artiodactyls 746
4．Pigs and hippopotamuses 748
5．Oreodonts 750
6．Camels 751
7．Ruminants 753
8．Chevrotains 754
9．Pecora 755
10．Cervidae 755
11．Giraffidae 757
12．Antilocapridae and Bovidae 760
ⅩⅩⅫ．CONCLUSION．EVOLUTIONARY CHANGES OF THE LIFE OF VERTEBRATES 765
1．The life of the earliest chordates 765
2．Comparison of the life of early chordates with that of mammals 767
3．The increasing complexity and variety of vertebrates 768
4．The variety of evidence of evolutionary change 769
5．Rate of evolutionary change 770
6．Vertebrates that have evolved slowly 771
7．Varying rates of evolutionary changes 774
8．Vertebrates that have disappeared 774
9．Successive replacement among aquatic vertebrates 775
10．Successive replacement among land vertebrates 776
11．Is successive replacement due to climatic change? 776
12．Convergent and parallel evolution 777
13．Some tendencies in vertebrate evolution 779
14．Evolution of the whole organization 780
15．Summary of evidence about evolution of vertebrates 781
16．Conservative and radical influences in evolution 783
17．The direction of evolutionary change 784
18．The influences controlling evolutionary progress 785
REFERENCES 787
INDEX 797