Chapter Ⅰ Introduction 1
1.Introduction to the Problem 1
2.Methodology 5
3.Limitations 6
4.Defining the Framework: International Law in National Courts 6
5.Applicable Law: Substantive Criminality for the Core Crimes 10
6.Structure 15
Chapter Ⅱ Practice: Core Crimes Prosecutions in National Courts 17
1.Introduction 17
2.Prosecution on the Basis of National Law 18
2.1 Prosecution as an Ordinary Crime 18
2.2 Prosecution as an International Crime 21
2.2.a International Crimes in National Law 21
2.2.b Case Study: Genocide 23
3.Prosecution on the Basis of International Law: Direct Application 29
3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 Specific Rule of Reference 30
3.2.a Rule of Reference for Substantive Criminality 30
3.2.b Rule of Reference to Establish Jurisdiction 33
3.3 General Rule of Reference 36
3.3.a Introduction 36
3.3.b Germany 39
3.3.c Switzerland 40
3.3.d Australia 41
3.3.e Senegal 43
3.3.f Belgium 46
3.3.g United States of America 49
3.3.h England and Wales 57
3.3.i Canada 60
3.3.j France 61
3.3.k Netherlands 66
3.3.l Ethiopia 70
3.3.m Argentina 71
3.3.n Hungary 76
3.3.o Other States 81
4. Conclusion 84
Chapter Ⅲ Underlying Considerations: What Crime, What Law? 89
1. Introduction 89
2. Minimalism and Selectivity in Core Crimes Prosecution 91
3. Sovereignty 99
4. Democratic Legitimacy 100
5. Separation of Powers 101
6. Manageability of the Law 104
7. Development and Coherence of Core Crimes Law 110
8. Underinclusion and Overinclusion 117
9. Rank and Effects of the Crime and the Law 124
10. Penalties 125
11. Conclusion 126
Chapter Ⅳ The Public International Law Framework of Implementation 129
1. Introduction 129
2. Theory: Monism-Dualism 129
3. The General Rule: Freedom of Implementation 132
4. The Doctrine of Self-Executing Treaties 136
5. Limits and Qualifications of the General Rule 140
5.1 Limits of the Freedom of Implementation 140
5.2 The Principle of Consistent Interpretation 146
5.3 Separate Regimes for Specific Categories? 153
5.3.a International Law of a Humanitarian Character 153
5.3.b Jus Cogens 163
6 Conclusion 170
Chapter Ⅴ The Framework of Implementation for the Core Crimes 173
1. Introduction 173
2. Characteristics of International Criminal Law 174
3. Characteristics of the Core Crimes 177
3.1 The Grave Character of the Core Crimes 177
3.2 The Jus Cogens Status of the Core Crimes 181
3.3 The Duty to Prosecute Core Crimes 185
3.3.a Basis of the Duty to Prosecute in International Law 186
3.3.b Acceptance of the Duty to Prosecute in State Practice 194
3.3.c Amnesty Laws 200
3.3.d Conclusion: Current statuse of the Duty to Prosecute 202
4. The International Character of Core Crimes Prosecutions 203
5. The Characteristics of Core Crimes in the Practice of National Courts 208
6. Implications of the ICC Statute and its Implementation 217
7. Conclusion 219
Chapter Ⅵ The Principle of Legality and Direct Application of Core Crimes 221
1. Introduction 221
2. Legal Basis and Purpose of the Principle of Legality 222
3. A Special Position for the Core Crimes? 224
4. The International and the National Principle of Legality 230
5. The Principle of Legality under Customary International Law 232
5.1 International Criminal Law as Lex 232
5.2 Accessibility 236
5.3 Foreseeability 238
5.4 Penalties 248
6. Which Offences are Directly Applicable? 257
7. The National Principle of Legality as an Obstacle to Core Crimes Prosecutions 263
8. Conclusion 267
Chapter Ⅶ Synthesis 269
1. Introduction 269
2. The International Rules on Direct Application 269
3. Reconciling National and International Law 270
4. The Future of Direct Application of Core Crimes Law 273
5. Implications of Direct Application of Core Crimes Law 274
Table of Cases 277
Cited Literature 291
Table of Documents 319
Ⅰ. International Reports 319
Ⅱ. National Reports 319
Index 321