List of Statutes 5
List of Cases 7
Acknowledgements 14
Introduction 15
Chapter One:The Privilege Against Self-Incrimination 21
1.1 The Concept of Privilege Generally 21
1.2 The Privilege Against Self-Incrimination 26
1.2.1 UK Statutory Recognition of the Claim to Privilege in Civil Proceedings 27
1.2.2 UK Statutory Recognition of the Claim to Privilege in Criminal Proceedings 28
1.2.3 The Absence of a Statutory Recognition of the Claim to Privilege in Extra- Judicial Proceedings and Investigations 29
1.2.4 Recognition of the Privilege in the United States of America: Protected by Constitutional Overlay 29
1.3 A Personal Protection Only 32
1.4 Limitations on the Privilege 34
1.4.1 Only Applies to Evidence in Respect of Acts Deemed Criminal Under UK Law 35
1.4.2 Restrictions on the Types of Evidence to which the Privilege Applies 36
1.4.2.1 Testimonial Evidence 38
1.4.2.2 Real Evidence 39
1.4.2.3 Documentary Evidence 41
1.5 Summary 46
Chapter Two:Development of the Privilege 47
2.1 How was the Privilege Created? 47
2.1.1 Evolution of a Twelfth Century Maxim 47
2.1.2 The Creation of Defence Counsel 54
2.2 Historical Criticism of the Privilege: Jeremy Bentham 56
2.3 Development of the Privilege in the Twentieth Century 58
2.3.1 Development of the Privilege by the UK Courts prior to Saunders v UK 60
2.3.2 Development of the Privilege by the European Court of Human Rights 65
Chapter Three:The Privilege Against Self-Incrimination: Is ft a Right? 70
3.1 Introduction 70
3.2 Basic Linguistic Distinction Between 'Privilege' and 'Right' 71
3.3 The Right to Silence 74
3.4 The Presumption of Innocence 77
3.5 Interaction with the Right to a Fair Trial 79
3.6 Conclusion 84
Chapter Four:Procedure for Invoking the Privilege & the Effect of a Successful Claim 86
4.1 How is the Privilege Invoked? 86
4.1.1 Invoking the Privilege Before the Court 86
4.1.2 Relying on the Privilege During an Investigatory Interview or Extra -Judicial Proceedings 87
4.2 A Real and Appreciable Risk of Prosecution 88
4.3 What Proceedings Can the Privilege be Invoked In? 94
4.4 How Far Does the Right to Claim Privilege Extend Beyond Criminal Cases? 96
4.5 The Effect of a Successful Claim to Privilege and the Role of Adverse Inference 100
4.6 The Judicial Discretion to Exclude Unfairly Obtained Evidence 101
4.6.1 The Common Law Position on the Judicial Discretion to Exclude Evidence 102
4.6.2 Section 78 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 ("PACE") 106
4.7 The Relevance of the Judicial Discretion to Exclude Unfairly Obtained Evidence to the Recognition of the Privilege Against Self-Incrimination 111
Chapter Five:The Privilege Abrogation in Respect of Corporate Fraud 113
5.1 Introduction 113
5.2 Practical Examples of Fraud 115
5.3 Defining Corporate Fraud 118
5.4 The Courts Developed Remedies to Assist the Victims of Fraud 120
5.5 The Power of the Authorities to Investigate Corporate Fraud 125
5.5.1 The Serious Fraud Office and the Criminal Justice Act 1987 126
5.5.2 The Department of Trade and Industry and the Companies Act 1985 128
5.6 Should the SFO be Treated Differently to the DTI? 133
5.7 Sharing Evidence 133
5.8 Should Corporate Fraud be Treated Differently to Ordinary Fraud? 136
5.9 Conclusion 140
Chapter Six:Saunders v United Kingdom 141
6.1 Introduction 141
6.2 The Background 142
6.3 The Preliminary Proceedings and the Prosecution 142
6.4 The Appeal 143
6.5 The Application Under the European Convention on Human Rights 144
6.5.1 The Decision of the European Court of Human Rights 145
6.5.2 Dissenting Opinion 148
6.6 Grounds on Which the Judgment Could be Distinguished 150
6.7 The Immediate Aftermath 151
6.7.1 R v Lyons: Retrospective Application of the European Court of Human Rights Ruling 151
6.7.2 The Attorney General's Note for Prosecutors 153
Chapter Seven:Developments in UK Legislation Following Saunders v United Kingdom 154
7.1 Introduction 154
7.2 The Enactment of the Human Rights Act 1998 154
7.3 The Rise of Use Immunity 156
7.3.1 Existing Use Immunity Provisions 157
7.3.2 Use Immunity and the Powers of the SFO and DTI 160
7.3.3 Use Immunity and the Powers of Other Investigative Agencies 161
7.4 Legislation Taking Effect After Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999 164
7.5 Does Use Immunity Fully Avoid Privilege Issues? 168
7.5.1 The Fruit of the Poisoned Tree 168
7.5.2 The Impact of Extradition 172
7.6 Conclusion 174
Chapter Eight:Developments in the Courts Following Saunders v United Kingdom 175
8.1 Introduction 175
8.2 Developments by the European Court of Human Rights 175
8.3 Developments by the UK Courts 177
8.4 Conclusion 182
Chapter Nine:Addressing the Arguments for Retention of the Privilege 183
9.1 Introduction 183
9.2 Individual Concerns 186
9.2.1 Individual Autonomy 186
9.2.2 Personal Privacy 189
9.3 Arguments Concerning the Operation of the Legal System 191
9.3.1 The Presumption of Innocence 191
9.3.2 To Prevent Abuse of Power by the State 191
9.3.3 To Protect the Accusatorial System of Justice 192
9.3.4 To Protect the Quality of Evidence 193
9.4 Summary 194
Chapter Ten:Utilising the Principles of Proportionality and Legitimate Aim to Qualify the Privilege 196
10.1 Introduction 196
10.2 Legitimate Aim 199
10.3 Proportionality 201
10.4 Applying the Principle of Proportionality and Legitimate Aim to Abrogate the Privilege: Section 172 Road Traffic Act 204
10.5 Can the Restriction of the Privilege in Fraud Investigations be Justified? 207
Chapter Eleven:The Privilege Abrogation for the Investigation of Tax Frauds 210
11.1 Background 210
11.2 Statutory Powers of Investigation 211
11.3 Classification of Proceedings as Administrative 213
11.4 The Disclosure Notice 217
11.5 Conclusion 219
Chapter Twelve:Competition Law 221
12.1 Introduction 221
12.2 Articles 81 & 82 of the EC Treaty 222
12.3 European Community Council Regulation 1/2003 223
12.4 The Competition Act 1998 228
12.5 Enterprise Act 2002 232
12.6 Conclusion 234
Conclusion 235
Bibliography 239