Part Ⅰ THE PHILOSOPHY AND ESSENTIALS OF CRIME SCENE FORENSICS 3
1 Crime Scene Forensics: Philosophy, Practice, and Teaching 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Why Investigate the Crime Scene? 4
1.3 Who Should Investigate Scenes of Crimes? 5
1.3.1 Crime Scene Investigative Paradigms 6
1.3.1.1 The Current Paradigm 7
1.3.1.2 An Evolving Paradigm 7
1.4 Definitions: Crime Scene, Forensic Science, Criminalistics, Forensics 13
1.4.1 Crime Scene 13
1.4.2 Forensic Science 14
1.4.3 Criminalistics 15
1.4.3.1 The Forensic DNA Biologist 18
1.4.3.2 The Medical Examiner 18
1.4.3.3 The Forensic Street Drug Chemist 18
1.4.3.4 The Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Expert 18
1.4.3.5 The Crime Scene Investigator 19
1.4.4 Forensics 19
1.5 The Concept of Evidence 20
1.5.1 Perceptions of Evidence 20
1.5.2 Divisible Matter and the Transfer of Evidence 22
1.5.3 The Human Mind and the Recognition of Evidence 23
1.5.4 The Legal Perspective/Connection 24
1.5.5 Defining Evidence 25
1.6 Instruction: A Philosophy 26
1.6.1 Structure of the Instruction 27
References 29
2 The Scientific Method, Bias, and Reasoning 31
2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 The Scientific Method: Scene Scientists and Scene Investigators 32
2.3 Bias in Scene Investigations 37
2.3.1 Case Example 1 40
2.3.2 Case Example 2 40
2.4 Reasoning 44
References 46
3 Management Basics: The Investigative Glue 47
3.1 Introduction 47
3.1.1 Teaching Crime Scene Management 47
3.1.2 The Learning Process 48
3.2 The Responding Officer 49
3.2.1 Observations 49
3.2.2 Actions 51
3.2.3 Documentation 53
3.3 The Team Leader: Managing the Scene Investigation 53
3.3.1 Subteams 55
3.4 The Scene Processing Cascade 57
3.4.1 Integrating the Scientific Method 60
References 62
4 The Fundamental Principles of Evidence 63
4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 The Locard Exchange Principle: "Every Touch Leaves a Trace" 63
4.3 Divisible Matter 65
4.4 Evidence Dynamics 68
4.5 Crime Scene Elements 69
4.5.1 The Macroscene 70
4.5.2 The Microscene: Trace Evidence or Locard Elements 73
4.5.2.1 The Transfer of Microscene Elements 75
4.6 Scene Scenario 80
References 84
5 Searching the Scene: Logic in Action 87
5.1 Introduction 87
5.2 Processing versus Investigation 89
5.3 Defining the Search 90
5.3.1 Effective Management 91
5.3.2 Nature of the Scene 91
5.3.3 Logic 92
5.3.4 Systematic 93
5.3.5 Creative Thinking--Out of the Box 93
5.4 Scene Search Methods 93
5.4.1 The Line (Grid) Methods 95
5.4.1.1 The Sequence of an Outdoor Search--Archiving and Searching Using the Grid Method 97
5.4.1.2 Zone and Point-to-Point Searches 98
5.4.1.3 The Link Method 100
5.4.1.4 Ray or Wheel Search 100
5.5 Employing On-Scene Technology and/or Statements 101
5.6 Pressures at the Scene 101
5.6.1 Constraints 102
5.7 Archiving and Searching Common Scene Types 102
5.8 Technology to Aid Searching 102
5.9 Searching for Trace Evidence--Overview Considerations 102
References 105
Part Ⅱ FORENSIC ARCHIVING: TODAY'S EYE FOR THE FUTURE 109
6 The Principles of Forensic Photography 109
6.1 Introduction to Forensic Archiving 109
6.1.1 Passive Archiving 110
6.1.2 Active Archiving 110
6.2 Techniques of Forensic Archiving 111
6.2.1 Digital Forensic Photography (Photographic Archiving) 111
6.2.2 The Purpose of Forensic Photography 112
6.2.3 Critical Aspects of Forensic Photography 113
6.3 The SLR Digital Camera 113
6.4 Essential Skills of Forensic Photography 115
6.4.1 Focus: "If It's Not in Focus, the Rest Doesn't Matter" 115
6.4.2 The Correct Forensic Exposure 116
6.4.2.1 Equivalent Exposures 117
6.4.3 Aperture 118
6.4.3.1 Telling the Scene's Story: The Importance of Aperture 120
6.4.4 Shutter Speed 122
6.4.5 Exposure Values 123
6.4.6 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 124
6.4.7 Focal Length 124
6.4.8 Metering 125
6.4.9 Exposure Compensation 126
6.4.10 White Balance 126
6.4.11 Capturing Forensic Content Properly 128
6.5 Forensic Aspects of Photography 129
6.5.1 Scene Incident Photographic Worksheet 130
6.5.2 Photographic Log 130
6.5.3 Types of Photographs 130
6.5.3.1 Establishing--Overview or Overall--Photographs 130
6.5.3.2 Midrange Photographs 132
6.5.3.3 Close-Up Photographs 133
6.5.4 Illumination 133
6.5.5 Filters 136
6.6 Forensic-Specific Considerations 136
6.6.1 Camera Positions 136
6.6.2 Scales 138
6.7 Photography of Common Scene Scenarios 138
6.7.1 Vehicular Accidents 139
6.7.2 Homicide Scenes 140
6.7.3 Nonhomicide Sexual Assaults 143
6.7.4 Suicides 144
6.7.5 Hit-and-Run Cases 146
6.7.6 Fatal Accidents: Body inside the Vehicle 146
6.7.7 Burglary: Breaking and Entering 146
6.7.8 Fire Scenes: Arson 147
6.8 Special Photographic Situations 147
6.8.1 Night and Low-Light Scenes 148
6.8.1.1 Painting with Light 148
6.8.1.2 Slaves 149
6.8.2 Impression Evidence Photography 149
6.8.3 Close-Up Photography 152
6.8.3.1 Image in the Viewfinder 152
6.8.3.2 The Close-Up Lens 152
6.8.3.3 Illumination 153
6.8.3.4 Depth of Field 154
6.8.3.5 Focus 154
6.8.3.6 Scales 154
References 154
Workshop 1: Photography--Camera Basics 155
W 1.1 Introduction 155
W 1.2 Required Tools 156
W 1.3 Camera Basics 156
W 1.3.1 File Formats 156
W 1.3.2 Camera Function Dials and Menu Options 156
W 1.4 Exercise 1 157
W 1.4.1 Aperture Priority 157
W 1.4.2 Shutter Speed 159
W 1.4.3 Manual Priority 159
W 1.5 Dark Environment Photography 160
W 1.5.1 ISO 160
W 1.5.2 Painting with Light or Using Slaves 161
W 1.6 Close-Up Photography 161
W 1.6.1 Procedure 162
W 1.6.2 Questions 162
7 The Paper Trail: Case Files, Worksheets, Notes, and Sketches 163
7.1 Introduction: General Considerations 163
7.2 Case Files 163
7.2.1 Worksheets 164
7.2.1.1 Forms 164
7.2.1.2 Mistakes 167
7.3 Sketches 167
7.3.1 Indoor Sketch Types 169
7.3.1.1 Plan Sketch 169
7.3.1.2 Cross-Projection or Exploded Sketch 170
7.3.1.3 Elevation Sketch 171
7.3.1.4 Perspective Sketch: 3D Rendering of a Scene 171
7.3.2 Outdoor Sketches 172
7.4 Measuring the Scene 172
7.4.1 Locating Objects 173
7.4.1.1 Triangulation 173
7.4.1.2 Baseline Method 174
7.4.2 Photogrammetry 177
7.4.3 Outdoor Scene Measurements 177
7.5 Securing the Archive 179
References 183
Workshop 2: Sketching the Scene 183
W 2.1 Introduction 183
W 2.2 Required Tools 183
W 2.2.1 Indoor Tools 184
W 2.2.2 Outdoor Tools 184
W 2.3 General Methods for Measuring the Scene 184
W 2.3.1 Triangulation 184
W 2.3.2 The Baseline Method 184
W 2.4 Indoor Scene Measurements 184
W 2.5 Outdoor Scene Measurements 185
W 2.6 Instructor Demonstration 185
W 2.7 Exercises 185
W 2.7.1 An Outdoor Scene 185
W 2.7.2 An Indoor Scene 185
W 2.8 Questions 188
8 Videography: The Forensic Documentary 189
8.1 Introduction 189
8.1.1 The Forensic Value of Crime Scene Video 189
8.1.1.1 Objective of the Video 190
8.1.2 Crime Scene Video Is a Documentary 190
8.1.3 Basic Video Terminology 190
8.1.4 Essential Video Camera Features 191
8.1.5 Requirements of a Forensic Videographer 192
8.1.5.1 Camera Movement Terminology 192
8.2 Basic Forensic Videography: The Scene Video 193
8.2.1 Camera Speed and Position 194
8.2.2 Camera Distances and Angles 194
8.2.3 Establishing Video Shows the Backdrop of the Scene 194
8.2.4 Close-Up Detail 194
8.3 The Forensic Topic Video and Forensic Photography 195
8.4 The Prescene Checklist 196
8.5 On-Scene Fundamentals 197
References 197
Part Ⅲ IMPRESSION EVIDENCE: PATTERNS OF IDENTITY 201
9 Fingerprints Ⅰ: The Intellectual Ingredients 201
9.1 Introduction 201
9.2 A Reasoned, Scientific Approach 203
9.2.1 On-Scene Printing: Menu-Driven versus Logic-Based Approaches 203
9.2.1.1 The Scene 204
9.2.1.2 Surface Characteristics 204
9.2.1.3 Environmental Conditions and the Age of the Print 206
9.2.1.4 The Tools 206
9.2.1.5 Resources 207
9.2.1.6 Technology and Its Limitations 207
9.2.1.7 Logic 208
9.2.1.8 Knowledge of the Science 209
9.2.1.9 Experience 209
9.2.1.10 Critical Thinking 209
9.2.1.11 Out-of-the-Box Reasoning 209
References 210
10 Fingerprints Ⅱ: On-Scene Considerations 211
10.1 Introduction 211
10.2 The Glandular Origin of Fingerprints 212
10.3 Finding Fingerprints at Scenes: General Considerations 215
10.4 Fingerprint Development Strategies 215
10.4.1 Porous Surfaces 217
10.4.1.1 Fingerprint Penetration into the Surface Matrix 217
10.4.1.2 Fingerprint Development Cascades for Porous Surfaces 218
10.4.2 Nonporous Surfaces 222
10.4.2.1 Powder Dusting 223
10.5 Fingerprints and DNA 226
10.5.1 Superglue (Cyanoacrylate) Fuming 226
10.5.1.1 Chemistry of the Cyanoacrylate Reaction 227
10.5.1.2 Superglue Fuming Methods 228
10.6 Lifting Developed Prints 234
10.6.1 Powder Lifts 234
10.6.1.1 Surface 234
10.7 Fingerprints on Adhesive Tapes 237
10.7.1 Removing Tape from Its Substrate 237
10.7.1.1 Physical Processes 238
10.7.1.2 Cooling 238
10.7.1.3 Freezer Spray 238
10.7.1.4 Solvents 238
10.7.2 Packaging and Protecting Adhesive Tapes 239
10.7.3 Developing Fingerprints on the Adhesive Side of Tapes 239
10.7.3.1 Rubber-Based Adhesives 240
10.7.3.2 Acrylic-Based Adhesives 241
10.7.3.3 Spot Testing Adhesives [32] 242
10.8 Patent Prints 242
10.8.1 Strategy One 242
10.8.2 Strategy Two 243
10.9 Impression Evidence in Blood 245
10.9.1 Blood as Multitasking Evidence 246
10.9.1.1 HOSDB Formulation for Acid Black 1, Acid Violet 17, and Acid Yellow 7 249
10.9.1.2 FBI Formulation for Acid Black 1 249
10.9.1.3 General Protein Fixing Procedure 250
10.9.1.4 General Procedure for Staining Blood Impressions 250
10.9.1.5 General Procedure for On-Scene Blood Print Staining 251
10.10 Fingerprints and Heat: Fire Scenes 251
10.10.1 Effect of Heat on Fingerprints 252
10.10.2 Locating Fingerprints at Arson Scenes 253
10.10.3 On-Scene Activity 254
References 254
Workshop 3: Fingerprints on Nonporous Surfaces--Dusting Powders 256
W 3.1 Inked and Rolled Prints 256
W 3.2 Developing Fingerprints at the Scene Using Dusting Powders 256
W 3.3 Fingerprint Residue 257
W 3.3.1 General Guidelines for Print Development 257
W 3.3.2 Powders Available 257
W 3.3.3 Demonstration 258
W 3.3.4 Exercise 1: Dusting Nonporous Surfaces 258
W 3.3.5 Exercise 2: Finding and Lifting Latent Fingerprints in a Mock Scene 259
W 3.4 Fingerprints on Wet Surfaces 259
W 3.4.1 Demonstration 259
W 3.5 Prints on the Sticky Side of Adhesive Tapes 260
W 3.5.1 Sticky-Side Fingerprint Developing Reagents 260
W 3.5.2 Spot Testing the Sticky-Side Chemistry 260
W 3.5.3 Exercise 4: Finding Prints on the Sticky Side of Adhesive Tape 261
W 3.6 Lifting Fingerprints 261
W 3.6.1 Tape-Lifting Procedure 261
W 3.6.2 Exercise 5: Lifting Dusted Fingerprints 262
W 3.7 Fluorescent Powders 262
W 3.7.1 Demonstration 262
W 3.7.2 Exercise 6 262
W 3.8 MikrosilTM Casting--Tex-Liff--Gellifters 263
W 3.8.1 Demonstration for Lifting Black and Dual-Dusted Fingerprints 263
W 3.8.2 Exercise 8: Lifting Prints Using Gels and MikrosilTM Casts 263
W 3.9 Prints on Skin: Demonstration 263
W 3.10 Finding Prints at the Scene: Demonstration 264
W 3.10.1 Reflected Ultraviolet Light 265
W 3.10.2 Alternate Light Source 265
W 3.10.3 Oblique Lighting 265
Workshop 4: Fingerprints on Nonporous (Continued) and Porous Surfaces 265
W 4.1 Nonporous Surfaces (Continued) 265
W 4.1.1 Super Glue Fuming and Enhancement: Background 265
W 4.1.2 Prints on Metallic Surfaces: Corrosion Analysis 267
W 4.2 Porous Surfaces 268
W 4.2.1 Exercise 1: Iodine Fuming 268
W 4.2.2 Exercise 2: Ninhydrin-Developed Fingerprints 269
W 4.2.3 Exercise 3: DFO-Developed Prints 269
W 4.2.4 Exercise 4: 1,2-Indanedione-Developed Prints 270
W 4.2.5 Exercise 5: Heat-Developed Prints 270
W 4.2.6 Exercise 6: Lanthanide-Developed Prints 270
W 4.3 Questions 271
11 Pattern Evidence Ⅰ: Footwear Impressions 273
11.1 Introduction 273
11.2 General Characteristics of Impression Evidence 273
11.3 Footwear Impressions (Marks) 274
11.3.1 Is Footwear Evidence Important? 274
11.3.2 CLassifying Footwear Impressions 278
11.3.3 Scene Investigation versus Laboratory Processes 279
11.3.4 Likelihood That Footwear Impressions Are Present 280
11.3.5 Finding Footwear Evidence at the Scene 281
11.3.6 Common Footwear Transfers 282
11.3.7 Enhancing Footwear Impressions: Understanding the Composition of Dust and Soil 283
11.4 2D Impression Evidence 284
11.4.1 Finding 2D Footwear Impressions at the Scene 285
11.4.1.1 Using Light to Locate Impression Evidence 285
11.5 Dry Residue Impressions 286
11.5.1 Science of Lifting Dry and Wet Residue Prints 287
11.5.1.1 Electrostatic Lifting 287
11.5.1.2 Gelatin Lifters/Gel Lifters (Gellifters) 289
11.6 Wet Residue Impressions 291
11.6.1 Enhancing Wet Residue Impressions 291
11.7 Visible (Patent) Impressions: Contaminating Substances 292
11.8 Preserving Enhanced Footwear Impressions 294
11.9 3D Impression Evidence 295
11.9.1 Photographic Archiving of 3D Impression Evidence 297
11.9.2 Casting to Preserve 3D Impression Evidence 297
11.9.2.1 Materials Required 300
11.9.2.2 Preparing the Impression 301
11.9.2.3 General Casting Procedure 301
11.9.2.4 Lifting the Cast 302
11.9.3 Special Circumstances 302
11.9.3.1 Casting in Snow 302
11.9.3.2 Snow Casting Procedure 302
References 303
12 Pattern Evidence Ⅱ: Vehicle-Involved Scenes 305
12.1 Introduction 305
12.2 Vehicle-Involved Scenes 305
12.2.1 Tire Track Impression Evidence: Evidence Often Overlooked 306
12.2.1.1 Why Conduct a Comprehensive Forensic On-Scene Investigation of Tire Track Evidence? 307
12.2.2 On-Scene Considerations 308
12.2.2.1 Management 309
12.2.2.2 Archiving 309
12.2.2.3 On-Scene Information 310
12.2.3 Impressions Other than Dirt 313
References 313
Workshop 5: Pattern Evidence 313
W 5.1 2D and 3D Footwear Impressions 313
W 5.1.1 Exercise 1: Casting Footprint and Tire Track Impressions Using Dental Stone 313
W 5.2 Locating Dry (Dust) Residue Prints 315
W 5.2.1 Exercise 2a: Finding Dry and Wet Residue Prints Indoors 316
W 5.2.2 Exercise 2b: Finding Dust Prints Outdoors 317
W 5.3 Lifting Wet and Dry Residue Dust Prints 317
W 5.3.1 Dry Residue Prints 317
W 5.3.2 Wet Residue Prints 319
W 5.4 Tire Impression Evidence 321
W 5.4.1 Recording Known Tire Impressions 321
W 5.4.2 Determining Wheelbase from Tire Impressions 322
W 5.5 Questions 325
Part Ⅳ THE BIOLOGICAL CRIME SCENE 329
13 The Biological Crime Scene: It's Not Just about DNA 329
13.1 Introduction 329
13.1.1 Categories of Biological Evidence 330
13.1.2 Searching for Biological Evidence 331
13.2 Locating Biological Evidence at the Scene 333
13.3 Commonly Occurring Biological Evidence 334
13.3.1 Blood 334
13.3.1.1 On-Scene Testing for Blood 334
13.3.1.2 The Unaided Human Eye 335
13.3.1.3 The Aided Human Eye: ALSs 335
13.3.1.4 IR Cameras: Combining Searching and Photography 336
13.3.1.5 Chemical Presumptive Testing 338
13.3.1.6 Lateral Flow Immunochromatography 341
13.3.1.7 Collecting and Packaging Blood Evidence 342
13.3.2 Semen 343
13.3.2.1 Performing the AP Test on Fresh Semen Stains 345
13.3.2.2 Quality Assurance and Control Testing 345
13.3.2.3 Establishing a Rationale for Searching for Semen 347
13.3.2.4 Collecting and Packaging Semen Evidence 350
13.3.3 Saliva 350
13.3.3.1 Collecting and Packaging Saliva Evidence 353
13.3.4 Urine 353
13.3.4.1 Collecting and Packaging Urine Evidence 354
13.3.5 Feces 355
13.3.5.1 Collecting and Packaging Feces Evidence 355
13.3.6 Vomit 355
13.3.6.1 Collecting and Packaging Vomit Evidence 355
13.3.7 Hair 356
13.3.7.1 Collecting and Packaging Hair Evidence 356
13.3.8 Fingerprint/Skin Residue 356
13.3.8.1 Collecting and Packaging Skin Residue 357
13.3.9 Sloughed-Off Cells 358
13.3.9.1 Collecting and Packaging Sloughed-Off Cell Evidence 358
13.4 Not-as-Common Biological Evidence 358
13.4.1 Bacteria/Spores/Viruses 358
13.4.2 Plant Material 359
13.5 Condom Evidence 359
13.5.1 Collecting and Packaging Condom Evidence 360
13.6 Quality Assurance at the Scene 361
References 361
Workshop 6: Biological Fluids at the Scene--Blood 363
W 6.1 Introduction: Identifying Blood at the Scene 363
W 6.2 Visual Examination 363
W 6.2.1 Exercise 1: Using the ALS to Locate Blood 363
W 6.3 Chemical Testing 364
W 6.3.1 Exercise 2: Presumptive Identification of Blood at the Scene 364
W 6.3.2 Exercise 3: Finding "Invisible" Bloodstains at the Scene: BlueStarTM 366
W 6.4 Immunological Testing: Identifying Human Blood at the Scene 367
W 6.4.1 Exercise 4: Identifying Human Blood 367
W 6.5 Nonblood Evidence at the Scene: Detecting Sugars Using HemaStixTM Strips 367
W 6.5.1 HemaStixTM Strips 367
W 6.5.2 Sugar-Containing Stains 367
References 368
Workshop 7: Drying Time of Blood 368
W 7.1 Introduction 368
W 7.2 Exercise 1: Drying Time of Blood Droplets 368
W 7.2.1 Procedure 368
W 7.3 Exercise 2: Drying Time of a Blood Pool 369
W 7.3.1 Procedure 369
Workshop 8: Locating Semen and Saliva at the Scene 369
W 8.1 Introduction 369
W 8.2 Exercise 1: Using the ALS to Find Semen at Crime Scenes 369
W 8.3 Exercise 2: Using the ALS to Find Saliva at Crime Scenes 370
W 8.4 Questions 371
14 Introduction to Bloodstain Pattern Analysis: The Basics 373
14.1 Introduction 373
14.2 Historical Perspectives: BPA in the United States 374
14.3 Scientific Basis of BPA 376
14.3.1 Biochemistry 378
14.3.2 Physics 379
14.3.2.1 Surface Tension 379
14.3.2.2 Fluid Mechanics (Dynamics) 379
14.3.2.3 Trajectory Analysis (Ballistics) 379
14.3.2.4 Gravitation (Gravity) 380
14.3.2.5 Terminal Velocity 380
14.3.2.6 Centripetal Force 381
14.4 Fundamental Principles of BPA 381
14.4.1 Blood Droplets and Surface Tension: Shape of a Falling Droplet 381
14.4.2 Defining the Direction of Blood Travel 382
14.4.2.1 Shape of Blood Droplets after Striking Surfaces 382
14.4.2.2 Dynamics of Blood-Striking-Angled Surfaces 382
14.4.2.3 Blood or Drip Trails 382
14.4.2.4 Shape and Size of Bloodstains 385
14.4.2.5 Perimeter Stain: Ghosting or Skeletonization 387
14.4.2.6 Calculating the Angle of Impact 387
14.4.2.7 Determining the Origin of an Impact 389
14.5 ArchivingBloodstain Patterns 394
14.6 Bloodstain Artifacts: Selected Examples 394
14.6.1 Insect Activity 396
14.6.1.1 Flies 396
14.6.1.2 Cockroaches 396
14.6.2 On-Scene Activity 396
14.6.3 Fabrics: Differential Absorption 397
14.7 Becoming a BPA Analyst 397
14.7.1 SWGSTAIN-Recommended Guidelines for Training 399
14.7.2 BPA Certification 399
14.8 Quality Assurance Guidelines for BPA 404
References 404
Workshop 9: BPA--The Basics 406
W 9.1 Introduction: Patterns in Blood 406
W 9.2 Falling Blood Droplets 406
W 9.2.1 Exercise 1: Vertically Dropping Blood 406
W 9.3 Exercise 2: Angularity of Blood 408
W 9.3.1 Procedure 408
W 9.4 Exercise 3: Blood Trails 408
W 9.4.1 Procedure 409
W 9.5 Exercise 4: Blood Dripping from Objects 409
W 9.5.1 Procedure 409
W 9.6 Exercise 5: Bloody Footprints 409
W 9.6.1 Procedure 409
W 9.7 Exercise 6: Other Patterns: Swipes, Cast Off, Dragging (Hair), and Crawling 410
W 9.7.1 Swipes and Wipes 410
W 9.7.2 Exercise 7: Cast-Off Pattern 410
W 9.7.3 Exercise 8: Dragging (Hair) 411
W 9.7.4 Exercise 9: Crawling through Blood 411
Workshop 10: Bloodstain Patterns--Impact Spatter and Area ot Origin 411
W 10.1 Introduction: Area of Origin of Impact Spatter 411
W 10.1.1 Exercise 1: The StringMethod--Determining Area of Impact Manually 411
W 10.1.2 Exercise 2: The String Method--Using the Laser to Determine Area of Impact 412
W 10.2 Exercise 3: Multiple Blows--2D Area of Convergence 412
W 10.3 Questions 413
15 Mass Fatality Events, Bioweapons, and Microbial Forensics 415
15.1 Mass Fatality Events: An Introduction 415
15.1.1 Defining Mass Fatality Events 415
15.1.2 The Anatomy of Mass Fatality Events 416
15.1.2.1 Loss of Life and Structure 416
15.1.2.2 The Human Consequences of Mass Fatality Events 417
15.1.3 Identifying the Dead in Mass Fatality Events 418
15.1.3.1 The Ingredients Necessary for Identification 419
15.2 Introduction to Bioweapons and Microbial Forensics 421
15.3 Microbial Forensics 423
15.3.1 Bioterrorism Terminology 424
15.3.2 Bioweapons 424
15.3.2.1 Bacterial Pathogens 425
15.3.2.2 Viral Pathogens 425
15.3.2.3 Other Bioweapon Categories 428
15.3.3 The Bioscene 433
15.3.3.1 Powder or Suspicious Envelopes/Packages at the Scene 433
15.4 Collecting Bioagents at the Scene 438
15.5 Protecting Investigators Performing Environmental Sampling 440
15.5.1 Air-Purifying Respirators 440
15.5.2 Disposable Protective Clothing: Integral Hood and Booties 440
15.6 Mass Fatality Internet Resources 443
References 443
16 Forensic Entomology: Bugs and the Postmortem Interval 445
16.1 Forensic Entomology: Introduction 445
16.2 What Happens after Death 448
16.3 PMI and Life Cycles 448
16.4 Equipment/Reagents Required for Collecting Entomological Evidence 452
16.5 What to Do at the Scene 452
16.6 Arson and Entomological Survival 453
References 455
Part Ⅴ MICROSCENES AND TRACE EVIDENCE 459
17 Microscenes: Hair and Fibers 459
17.1 Introduction 459
17.2 Hair and Fibers as Evidence 459
17.2.1 DNA in Hair 461
17.2.1.1 The Growth Cycle of Hair 461
17.2.1.2 DNA and the Structural Parts of the Hair 462
17.3 Transfer and Persistence of Hair 463
17.3.1 Transfer of Hair at the Scene 463
17.3.2 Persistence of Hair 464
17.4 Collecting and Preserving Hair at the Scene 465
17.4.1 Documentation 465
17.4.1.1 Create a Case File for the Specific Case 465
17.4.1.2 Record Important Case-Specific Information 465
17.4.1.3 Contamination and Loss 465
17.5 Trace Evidence Collection and Preservation Techniques 466
17.5.1 Record Keeping 466
17.5.2 Collection Techniques 466
17.5.2.1 Picking (Hunt and Peck) 467
17.5.2.2 Tape Lifting 467
17.5.2.3 Scraping 467
17.5.2.4 Vacuuming 468
17.5.2.5 Combing 468
17.5.2.6 Clipping and Scraping Fingernails 468
17.6 Evidence Security 469
References 469
Workshop 11: Every Touch Leaves a Trace: Hairs and Fibers 470
W 11.1 Introduction 470
W 11.1.1 Considerations 470
W 11.2 Finding Trace Evidence: Locard Elements 471
W 11.2.1 Picking (Hunt and Peck) 471
W 11.2.2 Tape Lifting 471
W 11.2.3 Vacuuming 472
W 11.2.4 Combing 473
W 11.2.5 Scraping 473
W 11.2.6 Clipping 473
W 11.3 Exercise 2: The Locard Exchange Principle 473
W 11.3.1 Procedure 474
W 11.4 Questions 474
18 Glass: A Multitasking Class of Evidence 475
18.1 Introduction 475
18.1.1 What Is Glass? 475
18.2 Glass as Evidence 476
18.2.1 Direction of Force 478
18.2.1.1 Bullet through a Window 480
18.2.2 When the Radial Edge Fails 482
18.2.3 Direction through a Windshield 482
18.2.3.1 Sequencing Bullet Shots in Plate Glass 483
18.3 Collecting, Packaging, and Preserving Glass Evidence 484
References 486
Workshop 12: Glass as Evidence 486
W 12.1 Introduction: Glass at the Scene 486
W 12.2 Point of Impact 486
W 12.3 Exercise 1: Direction of Force 487
W 12.4 Distribution of Glass Shards 487
W 12.4.1 Exercise 2 488
W 12.5 Questions 488
19 Soil and Paint as Evidence 489
19.1 Soil: An Introduction 489
19.2 The Forensic Premise: Location Diversity of Soil 489
19.2.1 Can Science Differentiate Soil Sufficiently for Forensic Investigations? 490
19.2.2 Do Soil Samples Differ from Location to Location? 490
19.2.3 Is There a Statistical Standard for Soil Matches? 490
19.3 Forensic Value of Soil 491
19.3.1 Soil Taphnomy 491
19.3.2 Associative Evidence: Similarities in Soil Composition 491
19.3.3 Exculpatory Evidence: Dissimilarities in Soil Composition 491
19.3.4 Sequence of Deposition: Layering of Soil 491
19.4 Collecting and Preserving Soil 492
19.4.1 Logic 492
19.4.2 Packaging Soil Evidence 492
19.4.3 Soil from a Cast 492
19.4.4 Exemplar Soil Samples 492
19.4.5 Samples from Vehicles 493
19.5 Paint: An Introduction 494
19.5.1 What Is Paint? 494
19.5.2 Forensic Value of Paint Evidence 495
19.5.2.1 Hit-and-Run Cases 496
19.5.2.2 Burglaries 497
19.5.3 Collecting Paint Evidence 498
19.5.3.1 Scene Samples 498
19.5.3.2 Exemplar or Known Samples 499
References 500
Part Ⅵ BANG! IT'S A SHOOTING INCIDENT SCENE 505
20 Introducing Shooting Scene Investigations 505
20.1 Introduction 505
20.2 On-Scene Considerations and Activity 505
20.2.1 Fragile Evidence 507
20.2.1.1 Gunshot Residue 507
20.2.1.2 Cartridge Cases 507
20.2.1.3 The Usual Fragile Evidence 507
20.2.1.4 Bullets 508
20.2.1.5 Bullet/Projectile Marks and Holes 508
20.3 Basic Facts and Definitions 508
20.3.1 Ammunition 509
20.3.1.1 Small Arms Ammunition 509
20.3.1.2 Shotgun Ammunition 510
20.3.2 Primer Compounds and Their Composition 510
20.3.2.1 Lead-Based Primers 511
20.3.2.2 Lead-Free and Nontoxic Primers 511
20.4 Forensic Ballistics 511
20.4.1 Internal (Interior) Ballistics 511
20.4.2 External Ballistics 511
20.4.3 Terminal Ballistics 511
20.5 Bullets--The Locard Exchange Principle in Action 512
20.5.1 Identifying Bullet Strikes 513
20.5.2 Chemical Analysis of Bullet Holes and Other Defects 513
20.5.3 Bullet Wipe 514
20.5.4 Trace Evidence 514
20.5.5 Testing for Lead 515
20.5.6 Testing for Copper 516
20.5.7 Testing for Nickel 517
20.6 Bullet Holes and Caliber 518
20.7 Trace Evidence and Bullet Holes 519
20.7.1 Blood from Bullets and Bullet Holes 520
20.8 Bullet Flight Paths 520
20.8.1 Intermediate Targets 521
20.8.2 Fatal Bullets 521
20.8.3 Number of Weapons Fired 521
20.8.4 Shooter Position 521
20.8.5 Bullet Flight Path Angular Components 522
20.8.6 Bullet Flight Paths into Fixed Objects 522
20.8.7 Trajectory Rods 522
20.8.8 Angular Components of the Bullet Flight Path 523
20.8.8.1 Vertical Component 523
20.8.8.2 Azimuth or Horizontal Angular Component 524
20.8.8.3 Bullet Flight Paths through Unfixed Objects 525
20.9 Ricochet 527
20.9.1 Tendencies to Ricochet 529
20.9.1.1 Nature of the Bullet 529
20.9.1.2 Shape of the Bullet 529
20.9.1.3 Response of the Surface 529
20.9.1.4 Velocity 529
20.9.2 Surface Characteristics and Ricochet Angles 529
20.9.2.1 Soft or Yielding Surfaces 529
20.9.2.2 Hard or Unyielding Surfaces 531
20.9.2.3 Direction 532
20.9.2.4 Effects of Ricochet 533
20.9.2.5 Deflections 533
20.9.2.6 Why Ricochets Are Important 533
20.10 Packaging/Preserving Firearms Evidence 533
20.10.1 Firearms 534
20.10.2 Bullets 534
20.10.3 Cartridge Cases 535
20.10.4 Ammunition 535
20.10.5 Powder and Shot Patterns 535
References 536
21 Vehicles as Shooting Incident Crime Scenes 537
21.1 Introduction 537
21.2 Two Scenes in One 537
21.2.1 Outside the Vehicle 538
21.2.2 Inside the Vehicle 539
21.2.3 Vehicle Checklist 539
21.3 Bullets and Vehicles 540
21.3.1 Issues in the Determination of Bullet Paths 540
21.3.1.1 Vehicle Composition 540
21.3.1.2 Vehicles in Motion 541
21.3.2 On-Scene Activity 541
21.3.2.1 Positioning the Vehicle 541
21.3.3 Post-On-Scene Activity 543
21.3.3.1 Measuring the Vehicle 543
21.4 Perforating Strikes to Vehicles 545
21.5 Penetrating (Nonexiting) Strikes to Vehicles 546
References 547
Part Ⅶ MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS AND SPECIALIZED SCENES 551
22 Fire Scenes: A Scientific Method Investigation 551
22.1 Introduction 551
22.2 The Scientific Method in Fire Investigations 551
22.3 Essential Fire Science 552
22.3.1 Scientific Complexities of a Fire 553
22.3.1.1 Combustion Products 553
22.3.1.2 Heat Transfer or Heat Flux or Energy Flow 554
22.3.1.3 Fuel Load 554
22.3.1.4 Heat Release Rate 554
22.3.1.5 Properties of Flames 555
22.3.1.6 Ignition 555
22.3.1.7 Fire Effects and Fire Patterns 556
22.4 First Responder 556
22.5 The Fire Scene Investigation 556
22.5.1 Archiving the Fire Scene 561
22.5.2 Evidence at Fire Scenes 562
22.5.3 Collecting Evidence 563
22.5.3.1 Liquid Accelerants 564
22.5.3.2 Liquid Evidence Absorbed by Solid Materials 564
22.5.3.3 Solid Samples 564
22.6 Tools, Equipment, and PPE 564
22.6.1 Personal Protective Equipment 564
22.6.2 Tools and Equipment 564
22.7 Fire Resources and Contacts 565
References 565
23 Quality at the Crime Scene 567
23.1 Introduction 567
23.2 A Comprehensive Quality Program for Crime Scene Investigative Units 567
23.2.1 Goals and Objectives 567
23.2.2 Organization and Management 567
23.2.3 Personnel 567
23.2.4 Facilities 568
23.2.5 Evidence Control 568
23.2.6 Validation 568
23.2.7 Analytical Procedures 568
23.2.8 Equipment Calibration and Maintenance 569
23.2.9 Reports 570
23.2.10 Review 570
23.2.11 Proficiency Testing 570
23.2.12 Corrective Action 571
23.2.13 Audits 571
23.2.14 Safety 572
23.2.15 Outsourcing 572
23.2.16 Written Records 572
23.2.17 Organization and Management 572
23.2.17.1 Management Stall 572
23.2.17.2 Personnel 573
23.3 Defining Quality at the Scene 573
23.3.1 Quality Control of Testing Reagents 574
23.3.1.1 Standard Operating Procedure for Blood Testing Reagents 574
23.3.2 Standard Operating Procedures 575
23.3.2.1 Performing the AP Test on Fresh Semen Stains 575
References 576
24 Collection and Preservation of Evidence 577
24.1 Introduction 577
24.2 Rules of Thumb for Packaging Evidence 577
24.3 List of EvidentiaryCategories 578
25 Scientific and Technical Working Groups 589
25.1 Introduction 589
References 590
Glossary 591
Index 599