Charter 1 THE SCIENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE 1
Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION 1
Questions and Discussion 4
Ⅱ.THE CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE 5
A.Increasing Greenhouse Gas Emissions 5
Questions and Discussion 5
B.Declining Natural Carbon Sinks 5
Questions and Discussion 5
C.The Relationship between GHG Concentrations and Temperature 6
Questions and Discussion 6
Ⅲ.THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE 6
A.Melting Ice 7
B.Rising Sea Levels 7
C.Changing Ocean Ecology 7
D.Intensifying Weather Events 7
E.Declining Forests and Expanding Desertification 7
F.Impacts on Ecosystems and Wildlife 7
G.Regional Impacts 7
Questions and Discussion 7
Ⅳ.SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS 7
A.Agriculture,Drought and Famine 8
B.Public Health Impacts 8
C.Climate Refugees 8
Questions and Discussion 8
Ⅴ.RAPID CLIMATE CHANGE EVENTS AND LIVING WITH UNCERTAINTY 9
Questions and Discussion 9
Ⅵ.NATIONAL SECURITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE 10
Questions and Discussion 10
Ⅶ.KEEPING OUR EYE ON THE BALL:LONG-TERM STABILIZATION TARGETS TO AVOID THE WORST CLIMATE IMPACTS 11
Questions and Discussion 11
APPENDIX A SAMPLE LECTURE NOTES 14
Chanter 2 RESPONDING TO CLIMATE CHANGE:MITIGATION 15
Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION 15
Ⅱ.GENERAL MITIGATION APPROACHES 15
A.Climate Change as a Market Failure 15
Questions and Discussion 16
B.Internalizing External Costs:Cures for Market Failure 16
1.Traditional Regulation 16
2.Emissions Trading 16
Questions and Discussion 17
3.Carbon Taxes 17
Questions and Discussion 18
4.Information-Based Approaches 18
5.Investment ＆ Technology Approaches 19
Questions and Discussion 19
Ⅲ.MITIGATION POLICIES AT THE SECTORAL LEVEL 19
A.Mitigation Measures 19
Questions and Discussion 19
B.Stabilization Wedges:Mitigation One Step at a Time 20
Questions and Discussion 20
Ⅳ.THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF CLIMATE MITIGATION 20
A.The Stern Review of Climate Economics 21
Questions and Discussion 21
B.The Critique of Cost-Benefit Analyses 22
Questions and Discussion 22
Chapter 3 RESPONDING TO CLIMATE CHANGE:ADAPTATION 23
Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION 23
Ⅱ.ADAPTATION STRATEGIES 23
A.Adaptive Infrastructure 23
B.Response to Sea Level Rise:Defend or Retreat 23
Questions and Discussion 24
C.Expanding Disaster Relief 24
D.Adaptive Agriculture 25
E.Adaptive Water Management 25
F.Relocation of Climate Refugees 25
G.Enhancing Natural Resilience and Ecosystem Services 25
H.Insurance as Adaptation 25
Questions and Discussion 25
Ⅲ.INTERNATIONAL CHALLENGES OF ADAPTATION 26
Questions and Discussion 26
Ⅳ.GEOENGINEERING 27
A.What is Geoengineering? 27
B.The Geoengineering Debate 27
Questions and Discussion 27
Chapter 4 THE UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORKCONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE 29
Ⅰ.AN INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL TREATIES 29
Questions and Discussion 29
Ⅱ.THE GLOBAL POLITICS OF CLIMATE CHANGE 30
A.National and Regional Contributions to Climate Change 30
B.Global Divides in Climate Politics 30
Questions and Discussion 31
Ⅲ.THE NEGOTIATIONS OF THE UN FRAMEWORK CONVENTION 31
A.The Early Years:Building Support for an International Convention on Climate Change 31
Questions and Discussion 31
B.Negotiations of the UNFCCC 32
Questions and Discussion 32
Ⅳ.THE UN FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE 32
Problem Exercise:Reading the UNFCCC 33
A.Selected Principles Underlying the UNFCCC 34
Questions and Discussion 35
1.State Sovereignty 35
Questions and Discussion 35
2.Common Concern of Humankind 36
Questions and Discussion 36
3.The Right to Sustainable Development 36
Questions and Discussion 37
4.Common but Differentiated Responsibilities 37
Questions and Discussion 37
5.Equity 38
6.Intergenerational Equity 38
Questions and Discussion 38
7.The Precautionary Principle 38
Questions and Discussion 38
B.The UNFCCC Objective 39
Questions and Discussion 39
C.Commitments 39
Questions and Discussion 39
Questions and Discussion 40
D.Institutional Architecture 41
Questions and Discussion 41
Ⅴ.EVALUATING THE UNFCCC:THE FRAMEWORK-PROTOCOL MODEL 41
Questions and Discussion 41
Chapter 5 INTRODUCTION TO THE KYOTO PROTOCOL 43
Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION 43
Ⅱ.NEGOTIATING THE KYOTO PROTOCOL 43
A.The First CoP and the Berlin Mandate 43
Questions and Discussion 44
B.Prelude to Kyoto:Building Political Will 44
Questions and Discussion 44
C.Negotiations at Kyoto 45
Questions and Discussion 45
Ⅲ.THE KYOTO PROTOCOL 45
Questions and Discussion 45
A.Emission Reduction Targets and Timetables 46
Questions and Discussion 46
B.Policies and Measures 46
Questions and Discussion 46
C.Forests and Other Sinks 46
Questions and Discussion 47
D.Emissions Trading and Other Flexibility Mechanisms 47
Questions and Discussion 47
E.Implementation and Compliance 47
Questions and Discussion 47
Ⅳ.TOWARDS RATIFICATION:NEGOTIATING THE MARRAKESH ACCORDS 48
Questions and Discussion 48
Chapter 6 IMPLEMENTING THE KYOTO PROTOCOL 49
Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION 49
Ⅱ.THE KYOTO PROTOCOL'S FLEXIBILITY MECHANISMS 49
A.Bubbles 49
Questions and Discussion 49
B.Joint Implementation 50
Questions and Discussion 50
C.Clean Development Mechanism 50
Questions and Discussion 50
Ⅲ.IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES 52
A.Supplementarity 52
Questions and Discussion 52
B.Additionality 53
1.Establishing Baseline Emissions 53
2.Additionality Assessment 53
3.Leakage 54
Questions and Discussion 54
C.Eligibility of Parties 57
Questions and Discussion 58
D.Problems of Project Breadth and Equity in the CDM 58
1.Breadth of CDM Projects 58
Questions and Discussion 60
2.Inequitable Distribution of CDM Benefits 61
Questions and Discussion 61
Ⅳ.IMPLEMENTATION OF KYOTO'S FLEXIBILITY MECHANISMS:THE EUROPEAN UNION'S EMISSIONS TRADING SCHEME 64
A.Key Features of the ETS 64
Questions and Discussion 66
B.Implementation of the ETS 66
Questions and Discussion 66
Chaoter 7 LAND USE AND FORESTRY 69
Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION 69
Ⅱ.THE ROLE OF LAND USE ACTIVITIES IN CLIMATE CHANGE 69
Questions and Discussion 70
Ⅲ.INCORPORATING LAND USE INTO THE CLIMATE REGIME 71
A.Accounting Challenges of Land Use Activities 71
Questions and Discussion 71
B.The Kyoto Protocol Negotiations 71
C.The Rules of the Kyoto Protocol 72
1.Defining Land Use Activities:LULUCF 72
Questions and Discussion 72
2.Accounting for LULUCF Activities 72
a.Afforestation,Reforestation,and Deforestation 72
b.Revegetation and Cropland and Grazing Land Management 74
c.Forest Management 74
Questions and Discussion 74
D.LULUCF and the CDM 75
Questions and Discussion 76
Ⅳ.DEFORESTATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE 78
Questions and Discussion 79
Chapter 8 COMPLIANCE AND DISPUTE SETTLEMENT 83
Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION 83
Ⅱ.COMPLIANCE UNDER MULTILATERAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS 83
Questions and Discussion 84
Ⅲ.COMPLIANCE WITH THE CLIMATE CHANGE REGIME 84
A.The Climate Change Convention 84
Questions and Discussion 85
B.The Kyoto Protocol 85
1.The Kyoto Protocol's Compliance Mechanism 86
2.The Consequences of Noncompliance 87
Questions and Discussion 87
Ⅳ.DISPUTE SETTLEMENT AND RESOLUTION 90
A.Settlement of Disputes under the Climate Change Regime 90
Questions and Discussion 90
B.Climate Disputes under Customary International Law 90
1.The Duty Not to Cause Environmental Harm 90
2.State Responsibility 91
Questions and Discussion 91
Chapter 9 BEYOND 2012:THE POST-KYOTO CLIMATE REGIME 95
Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION 95
Ⅱ.THE ROAD TO BALI 96
A.Europe and Other Annex I Parties 96
Questions and Discussion 96
B.The United States and the Major Emitters' Process 96
Questions and Discussion 96
C.The G8 97
Questions and Discussion 97
D.Developing Countries 98
Questions and Discussion 98
Ⅲ.THE BALI ACTION PLAN 98
Questions and Discussion 98
Ⅳ.OPTIONS FOR A POST-KYOTO PROTOCOL AGREEMENT 100
A.Who Will Be Subject to Commitments? 100
Questions and Discussion 100
B.The Nature of the Commitments 100
1.The Commitment Goal 100
Questions and Discussion 100
2.Options for Mitigation Commitments 101
a.Intensity Targets 101
Questions and Discussion 101
b.Action Targets 101
Questions and Discussion 101
c.Policies and Measures 102
Questions and Discussion 102
Chapter 10 CLIMATE CHANGE AND OTHER INTERNATIONAL LAW REGIMES 103
Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION 103
Ⅱ.THE OZONE REGIME AND CLIMATE CHANGE 103
A.Introduction to Ozone Depletion 104
B.The UNFCCC's Treatment of Ozone Depleting Substances 104
C.The Montreal Protocol Regime's Treatment of Greenhouse Gases 104
Questions and Discussion 104
Ⅲ.BIODIVERSITY-RELATED TREATIES 105
A.World Heritage Convention 105
1.Background 105
2.World Heritage Sites in Danger Due to Climate Change 105
Questions and Discussion 105
B.Convention on Biological Diversity 106
Questions and Discussion 106
C.Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 106
Questions and Discussion 106
D.Wetlands of International Importance—The Ramsar Convention 106
Questions and Discussion 106
E.The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 107
Questions and Discussion 107
Ⅳ.CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE LAW OF THE SEA 107
A.Introduction 107
B.The Law of the Sea Regime 107
Questions and Discussion 107
C.Shifting Baselines Due to Climate Change 108
Questions and Discussion 108
D.Ocean Fertilization and Climate Change 108
Questions and Discussion 108
Ⅴ.HUMAN RIGHTS CONVENTIONS 109
A.Introduction 109
Questions and Discussion 109
B.The Inuit Petition to the Inter-American Commission 110
Questions and Discussion 110
C.The Small Island States 110
Questions and Discussion 110
D.Human Rights Impacts of Climate Change Policies 110
Questions and Discussion 110
Ⅵ.CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE INTERNATIONAL TRADE REGIME 111
A.Introduction 111
B.Climate Impacts of International Trade 111
Questions and Discussion 111
C.Competitiveness Concerns 112
Questions and Discussion 112
D.International Trade Rules and Climate Change Policy:Challenges and Opportunities 112
1.An Introduction to International Trade Rules 112
Questions and Discussion 113
2.Carbon and Other Taxes 114
a.Automobile Taxes 114
b.Carbon Taxes 114
c.Border Tax Adjustments 114
d.Taxes on Products Made with Fossil Fuels 114
Questions and Discussion 114
3.Renewable Energy Requirements 114
Questions and Discussion 114
4.Fuel Efficiency Standards and Ecolabels 117
Questions and Discussion 117
5.Subsidies 117
Questions and Discussion 117
Chapter 11 U.S.CLIMATE CHANGE POLICIES 119
Ⅰ.AN OVERVIEW OF GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS IN THE UNITED STATES 119
Ⅱ.THE BUSH ADMINISTRATION'S POLICY ON CLIMATE CHANGE 120
Questions and Discussion 120
Ⅲ.LEGISLATIVE PROPOSALS TO ADDRESS CLIMATE CHANGE 122
A.Emissions Trading 122
Questions and Discussion 124
B.Carbon Tax Legislation 126
Questions and Discussion 127
Chapter 12 CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE COURTS 129
Ⅰ.THRESHOLD ISSUES 129
Ⅱ.ARTICLE Ⅲ STANDING 129
A.Standing in Early Climate Cases 129
B.Massachusetts v.EPA 130
Questions and Discussion 130
CENTER FOR BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY v.UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,563 F.3d 466(D.C.Cir.2009) 132
Ⅲ.IS CLIMATE CHANGE A NONJUSTICIABLE POLITICAL QUESTION? 135
CONNECTICUT v.AMERICAN ELECTRIC POWER COMPANY,Inc.,____F.3d____,2009 WL 2996729(2d Cir.Sept.21,2009) 135
Questions and Discussion 141
Chapter 13 CLIMATE CHANGE UNDER EXISTING FEDERAL ENVIRONMENTAL STATUTES 143
Ⅰ.REGULATING CLIMATE CHANGE UNDER THE CLEAN AIR ACT 143
A.Overview of the CAA 144
1.NAAQS 144
2.Hazardous Air Pollutants 144
3.Stationary Source Emissions Standards orLimitations 144
4.Mobile Source Emissions Standards 144
Questions and Discussion 144
B.Massachusetts v.EPA:The Authority to Regulate 144
Questions and Discussion 144
C.Regulation of Vehicle Emissions Standards by the States 146
1.California's Waiver under the Clean Air Act for Vehicle Emissions Standards 147
Questions and Discussion 147
2.Are California's State Vehicle Emissions Standards Pre-empted? 148
D.Challenges to Coal-Fired Power Plants 148
Questions and Discussion 149
E.Future Regulation of Climate Change 149
Ⅱ.THE NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT 149
A.Is an EIS Needed? 149
Questions and Discussion 149
B.The Scope of the "Effects" Analysis 151
1.Direct and Indirect Effects 151
Questions and Discussion 151
Questions and Discussion 151
2.Cumulative Impacts 152
Questions and Discussion 152
C.Alternatives 153
Questions and Discussion 153
Ⅲ.THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT 153
A.Introduction to the ESA 153
1.Prohibition against "Taking" 154
2.Designation of Critical Habitat 154
3.Consultation and the Duty to Avoid Jeopardy 154
4.Recovery Plans 154
B.Polar Bears,Climate Change and the ESA 154
1.A Dependency on Diminishing Sea Ice 155
2.Polar Bears Are Threatened with Extinction 155
3.Can the ESA Save the Polar Bear from Climate Change? 155
a.Jeopardy and Adverse Modification of Critical Habitat 155
Questions and Discussion 155
b.Prohibitions against "Taking" Polar Bears 156
Questions and Discussion 156
c.Recovery Plans 157
Questions and Discussion 157
Ⅳ.THE CLEAN WATER ACT 158
A.Overview 158
B.Climate Change and the Water Quality Standards Program 158
1.The 303(d)Listing Process 158
Questions and Discussion 158
2.The Consequences of a 303(d)Listing Decision 158
a.Implications for Point Sources:The Prohibition against New Discharges into Water Quality Limited Streams 158
Questions and Discussion 158
b.Implications for All Sources:Compliance with TMDLs 158
Questions and Discussion 158
Chapter 14 U.S.LAW AND POLICY:ENERGY 159
Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION 159
Ⅱ.TRADITIONAL ELECTRICITY REGULATION AND FOSSIL FUELS 159
A.An Introduction to the U.S.Electricity System 159
Questions and Discussion 159
B.Utility Regulation and Fossil Fuel Use 161
Questions and Discussion 162
C.Addressing Carbon Dioxide Emissions through Utility Regulation 162
1.An Overview of PUC Authority 162
Questions and Discussion 162
2.PUC Decisions Regarding Coal-Fired Power Plants 162
Questions and Discussion 163
Ⅲ.REVISING THE ENERGY PORTFOLIO IN THE UNITED STATES 164
A.Traditional Fuels as Sustainable Energy Sources? 164
1."Clean Coal" 164
Questions and Discussion 164
2.Nuclear Power 164
Questions and Discussion 164
B.Renewable Energy Sources 165
1.Wind Power 165
Questions and Discussion 165
2.Solar Power 165
Questions and Discussion 165
3.Hydropower 166
Questions and Discussion 166
Ⅳ.RENEWABLE ENERGY GENERATION:REGULATION AND INCENTIVES 166
A.Reforming the Electricity System 166
Questions and Discussion 166
B.Renewable Portfolio Standards 167
Questions and Discussion 167
C.Tax Credits,Deductions,and Other Incentives 168
Ⅴ.ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION 168
Questions and Discussion 168
Chapter 15 U.S.LAW AND POLICY:TRANSPORTATION 171
Ⅰ.AUTOMOBILE FUEL EFFICIENCY STANDARDS 171
A.Early Case Law and Deference to NHTSA 171
Questions and Discussion 171
B.Recent Developments in the CAFE Program:A New Era? 172
1.Reformed CAFE and Light Trucks 172
Questions and Discussion 173
2.The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 173
Questions and Discussion 174
Ⅱ.REFORMING THE TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE 175
A.A Survey of Policies to Reduce Vehicle Miles Traveled(VMT) 175
Questions and Discussion 175
B.The Role of the Federal Government in Transportation Policies 176
Questions and Discussion 176
Ⅲ.ALTERNATIVE FUELS 177
A.An Overview of Alternative Fuel Production and Use 177
1.Agricultural Sources of Fuels 177
Questions and Discussion 177
2.Natural Gas 178
3.Hydrogen Fuel Cells 178
Questions and Discussion 178
B.The Legal Framework Regulating Alternative Fuels 178
1.Tax Incentives and Subsidies 178
Questions and Discussion 178
2.Renewable Fuel Standards 178
Questions and Discussion 178
C.Are Hybrids and Plug-In Vehicles the Solution? 179
1.An Overview of PHEV Technology 179
Questions and Discussion 179
2.Policies Affected PHEV Use 179
Questions and Discussion 179
Questions and Discussion 179
Chapter 16 CLIMATE CHANGE AND TORTS 183
Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION 183
Questions and Discussion 183
Ⅱ.A REVIEW OF CURRENT CLIMATE-RELATED TORT CASES 184
A.The State Attorneys General Cases 184
B.Private Causes of Action 184
STATE OF CONNECTICUT,ET AL.v.AMERICAN ELECTRIC POWER COMPANY INC.,ET AL.,2009 U.S.App.LEXIS 20873,at pp 69-71,99-102 184
Questions and Discussion 186
Ⅲ.EVALUATING THE ELEMENTS OF A TORT ACTION IN THE CLIMATE CONTEXT 188
A.Breach of Duty:The Reasonableness of Defendants' Actions 188
Questions and Discussion 188
B.Causation 188
Questions and Discussion 188
C.Damages 189
Questions and Discussion 189
Ⅳ.DEFENSES TO TORT ACTIONS 189
A.Political Question Doctrine and other Threshold Issues 189
B.Are Common Law Claims Pre-Empted by the Clean Air Act? 189
1.Is Federal Common Law Preempted? 189
Questions and Discussion(from supplement concerning Connecticut v.AEP) 190
Questions and Discussion 190
2.Is State Common Law Preempted? 190
Questions and Discussion 190
Ⅴ.FUTURE IMPLICATIONS OF TORT LITIGATION 191
Questions and Discussion 191
Chapter 17 STATE AND LOCAL RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE 193
Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION 193
Ⅱ.STATE AND LOCAL ACTIONS TO MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE 193
A.Regional Measures 193
Questions and Discussion 193
B.State and Local Measures 196
1.Renewable Portfolio Standards 196
Questions and Discussion 196
2.Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Goals 197
a.Statewide Emissions Reductions:California 197
Questions and Discussion 197
b.Local Emissions Reductions:Portland,Oregon 197
Questions and Discussion 197
3.Measures to Limit Emissions from Coal Plants 197
Questions and Discussion 197
4.Other Common State and Local Measures 198
Ⅲ.DOES THE COMMERCE CLAUSE PROHIBIT SUB-FEDERAL REGULATION OF GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS? 198
A.Commerce Clause Challenges to Emissions Standards 198
Questions and Discussion 198
B.Commerce Clause Challenges to Renewable Portfolio Standards 199
Questions and Discussion 199
Ⅳ.THE FUTURE ROLE OF STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS 199
Questions and Discussion 199
Chapter 18 THE PRIVATE SECTOR 201
Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION 201
Ⅱ.WHY DO CORPORATIONS VOLUNTARILY CURB EMISSIONS? 201
Questions and Discussion 201
Ⅲ.VOLUNTARY COMMITMENTS AND ACTIONS 202
A.Reporting and Reducing GHG Emissions 202
Questions and Discussion 202
B.Creating a Market:The Chicago Climate Exchange 203
Questions and Discussion 203
Ⅳ.GREENING INVESTMENT AND GREEN COLLAR JOBS 203
Questions and Discussion 204
Ⅴ.THE PRIVATE SECTOR AND PUBLIC CLIMATE POLICY 204
Questions and Discussion 204
Chapter 19 TOWARD A CARBON-FREE FUTURE 205
Ⅰ.ENVISIONING A CARBON-FREE FUTURE 205
Questions and Discussion 205
Ⅱ.HOW TO ACHIEVE A CARBON-FREE FUTURE 206
Questions and Discussion 206
Ⅲ.BUILDING SUPPORT FOR A CARBON-FREE FUTURE 207
A.Building Political Will for Preventing Climate Change 207
Questions and Discussion 207
B.Reframing How We Talk About Climate Change 207
Questions and Discussion 207