Chapter 1 The First Aeronautical Engineers 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Very Early Developments 3
1.3 Sir George Cayley （1773-1857）—The True Inventor of the Airplane 6
1.4 The Interregnum—From 1853 to 1891 13
1.5 Otto Lilienthal （1848-1896）—The Glider Man 17
1.6 Percy Pilcher （1867-1899）—Extending The Glider Tradition 20
1.7 Aeronautics Comes to America 21
1.8 Wilbur （1867-1912） and Orville （1871-1948） Wright—Inventors of the First Practical Airplane 26
1.9 The Aeronautical Triangle—Langley，The Wrights，and Glenn Curtiss 35
1.10 The Problem of Propulsion 44
1.11 Faster and Higher 45
1.12 Summary and Review 48
Bibliography 51
Chapter 2 Fundamental Thoughts 53
2.1 Fundamental Physical Quantities of a Flowing Gas 57
2.1.1 Pressure 57
2.1.2 Density 58
2.1.3 Temperature 59
2.1.4 Flow Velocity and Streamlines 60
2.2 The Source of All Aerodynamic Forces 62
2.3 Equation of State for a Perfect Gas 64
2.4 Discussion of Units 66
2.5 Specific Volume 71
2.6 Anatomy of the Airplane 82
2.7 Anatomy of a Space Vehicle 92
2.8 Historical Note：The NACA and NASA 101
2.9 Summary and Review 104
Bibliography 105
Problems 106
Chapter 3 The Standard Atmosphere 110
3.1 Definition of Altitude 112
3.2 Hydrostatic Equation 113
3.3 Relation Between Geopotential and Geometric Altitudes 115
3.4 Definition of the Standard Atmosphere 116
3.5 Pressure，Temperature，and Density Altitudes 125
3.6 Historical Note：The Standard Atmosphere 128
3.7 Summary and Review 130
Bibliography 132
Problems 132
Chapter 4 Basic Aerodynamics 134
4.1 Continuity Equation 138
4.2 Incompressible and Compressible Flow 139
4.3 Momentum Equation 142
4.4 A Comment 146
4.5 Elementary Thermodynamics 153
4.6 Isentropic Flow 160
4.7 Energy Equation 166
4.8 Summary of Equations 173
4.9 Speed of Sound 174
4.10 Low-Speed Subsonic Wind Tunnels 182
4.11 Measurement of Airspeed 188
4.11.1 Incompressible Flow 191
4.11.2 Subsonic Compressible Flow 197
4.11.3 Supersonic Flow 205
4.11.4 Summary 210
4.12 Some Additional Considerations 210
4.12.1 More about Compressible Flow 211
4.12.2 More about Equivalent Airspeed 213
4.13 Supersonic Wind Tunnels and Rocket Engines 214
4.14 Discussion of Compressibility 226
4.15 Introduction to Viscous Flow 227
4.16 Results for a Laminar Boundary Layer 236
4.17 Results for a Turbulent Boundary Layer 241
4.18 Compressibility Effects on Skin Friction 244
4.19 Transition 247
4.20 Flow Separation 250
4.21 Summary of Viscous Effects on Drag 255
4.22 Historical Note：Bernoulli and Euler 257
4.23 Historical Note：The Pitot Tube 258
4.24 Historical Note：The First Wind Tunnels 261
4.25 Historical Note：Osborne Reynolds and his Number 267
4.26 Historical Note：Prandtl and the Development of the Boundary Layer Concept 271
4.27 Summary and Review 274
Bibliography 278
Problems 279
Chapter 5 Airfoils，Wings，and Other Aerodynamic Shapes 288
5.1 Introduction 288
5.2 Airfoil Nomenclature 290
5.3 Lift，Drag，and Moment Coefficients 294
5.4 Airfoil Data 300
5.5 Infinite versus Finite Wings 315
5.6 Pressure Coefficient 316
5.7 Obtaining Lift Coefficient from Cp 322
5.8 Compressibility Correction for Lift Coefficient 326
5.9 Critical Mach Number and Critical Pressure Coefficient 327
5.10 Drag-Divergence Mach Number 339
5.11 Wave Drag （At Supersonic Speeds） 347
5.12 Summary of Airfoil Drag 357
5.13 Finite Wings 359
5.14 Calculation of Induced Drag 363
5.15 Change in the Lift Slope 372
5.16 Swept Wings 381
5.17 Flaps—A Mechanism for High Lift 394
5.18 Aerodynamics of Cylinders and Spheres 400
5.19 How Lift is Produced—Some Alternative Explanations 405
5.20 Historical Note：Airfoils and Wings 415
5.20.1 The Wright Brothers 416
5.20.2 British and U.S.Airfoils （1910-1920） 417
5.20.3 1920-1930 418
5.20.4 Early NACA Four-Digit Airfoils 418
5.20.5 Later NACA Airfoils 419
5.20.6 Modern Airfoil Work 419
5.20.7 Finite Wings 420
5.21 Historical Note：Ernst Mach and his Number 422
5.22 Historical Note：The First Manned Supersonic Flight 426
5.23 Historical Note：The X-15—First Manned Hypersonic Airplane and Stepping-Stone to the Space Shuttle 430
5.24 Summary and Review 432
Bibliography 434
Problems 435
Chapter 6 Elements of Airplane Performance 441
6.1 Introduction：The Drag Polar 441
6.2 Equations of Motion 448
6.3 Thrust Required for Level，Unaccelerated Flight 450
6.4 Thrust Available and Maximum Velocity 458
6.5 Power Required for Level，Unaccelerated Flight 461
6.6 Power Available and Maximum Velocity 466
6.6.1 Reciprocating Engine-Propeller Combination 466
6.6.2 Jet Engine 468
6.7 Altitude Effects on Power Required and Available 470
6.8 Rate of Climb 479
6.9 Gliding Flight 489
6.10 Absolute and Service Ceilings 493
6.11 Time to Climb 499
6.12 Range and Endurance：Propeller-Driven Airplane 500
6.12.1 Physical Considerations 501
6.12.2 Quantitative Formulation 502
6.12.3 Breguet Formulas （Propeller-Driven Airplane） 504
6.13 Range and Endurance：Jet Airplane 508
6.13.1 Physical Considerations 509
6.13.2 Quantitative Formulation 510
6.14 Relations Between CD.0 and CD，i 514
6.15 Takeoff Performance 522
6.16 Landing Performance 528
6.17 Turning Flight and the V-n Diagram 531
6.18 Accelerated Rate of Climb （Energy Method） 540
6.19 Special Considerations for Supersonic Airplanes 547
6.20 Uninhabited Aerial Vehicles （UAVs） 550
6.21 Micro Air Vehicles 560
6.22 Quest for Aerodynamic Efficiency 563
6.22.1 Measure of Aerodynamic Efficiency 563
6.22.2 What Dictates the Value of L/D？ 564
6.22.3 Sources of Aerodynamic Drag； Drag Reduction 564
6.22.4 Some Innovative Aircraft Configurations for High L/D 569
6.23 A Comment 571
6.24 Historical Note：Drag Reduction—The NACA Cowling and the Fillet 572
6.25 Historical Note：Early Predictions of Airplane Performance 576
6.26 Historical Note：Breguet and the Range Formula 578
6.27 Historical Note：Aircraft Design—Evolution and Revolution 579
6.28 Summary and Review 584
Bibliography 588
Problems 588
Chapter 7 Principles of Stability and Control 594
7.1 Introduction 594
7.2 Definition of Stability and Control 600
7.2.1 Static Stability 601
7.2.2 Dynamic Stability 602
7.2.3 Control 604
7.2.4 Partial Derivative 604
7.3 Moments on the Airplane 605
7.4 Absolute Angle of Attack 606
7.5 Criteria for Longitudinal Static Stability 608
7.6 Quantitative Discussion：Contribution of the Wing to Mcg 613
7.7 Contribution of the Tail to Mcg 617
7.8 Total Pitching Moment About the Center of Gravity 620
7.9 Equations for Longitudinal Static Stability 622
7.10 Neutral Point 624
7.11 Static Margin 625
7.12 Concept of Static Longitudinal Control 629
7.13 Calculation of Elevator Angle to Trim 634
7.14 Stick-Fixed Versus Stick-Free Static Stability 636
7.15 Elevator Hinge Moment 637
7.16 Stick-Free Longitudinal Static Stability 639
7.17 Directional Static Stability 643
7.18 Lateral Static Stability 644
7.19 A Comment 646
7.20 Historical Note：The Wright Brothers Versus the European Philosophy of Stability and Control 647
7.21 Historical Note：The Development of Flight Controls 648
7.22 Historical Note：The “Tuck-Under”Problem 650
7.23 Summary and Review 651
Bibliography 653
Problems 653
Chapter 8 Space Flight （Astronautics） 655
8.1 Introduction 655
8.2 Differential Equations 662
8.3 Lagrange’s Equation 663
8.4 Orbit Equation 666
8.4.1 Force and Energy 666
8.4.2 Equation of Motion 668
8.5 Space Vehicle Trajectories—Some Basic Aspects 672
8.6 Kepler’s Laws 679
8.7 An Application：The Voyager Spacecraft—Their Design，Flight Trajectories，and Historical Significance 683
8.8 Introduction to Earth and Planetary Entry 687
8.9 Exponential Atmosphere 690
8.10 General Equations of Motion for Atmospheric Entry 690
8.11 Application to Ballistic Entry 694
8.12 Entry Heating 700
8.13 Lifting Entry，with Application to the Space Shuttle 708
8.14 Historical Note：Kepler 712
8.15 Historical Note：Newton and the Law of Gravitation 714
8.16 Historical Note：Lagrange 716
8.17 Historical Note：Unmanned Space Flight 716
8.18 Historical Note：Manned Space Flight 721
8.19 Summary and Review 723
Bibliography 725
Problems 725
Chapter 9 Propulsion 728
9.1 Introduction 728
9.2 Propeller 731
9.3 Reciprocating Engine 738
9.4 Jet Propulsion—The Thrust Equation 749
9.5 Turbojet Engine 752
9.5.1 Thrust Buildup for a Turbojet Engine 757
9.6 Turbofan Engine 763
9.7 Ramjet Engine 765
9.8 Rocket Engine 769
9.9 Rocket Propellants—Some Considerations 776
9.9.1 Liquid Propellants 776
9.9.2 Solid Propellants 779
9.9.3 A Comment 781
9.10 Rocket Equation 782
9.11 Rocket Staging 783
9.12 Quest for Engine Efficiency 787
9.12.1 Propulsive Efficiency 788
9.12.2 The Green Engine 791
9.13 Electric Propulsion 792
9.13.1 Electron-Ion Thruster 792
9.13.2 Magnetoplasmadynamic Thruster 793
9.13.3 Arc-Jet Thruster 793
9.13.4 A Comment 794
9.14 Historical Note：Early Propeller Development 795
9.15 Historical Note：Early Development of the Internal Combustion Engine for Aviation 797
9.16 Historical Note：Inventors of Early Jet Engines 800
9.17 Historical Note：Early History of Rocket Engines 803
9.18 Summary and Review 809
Bibliography 810
Problems 811
Chapter 10 Hypersonic Vehicles 815
10.1 Introduction 815
10.2 Physical Aspects of Hypersonic Flow 819
10.2.1 Thin Shock Layers 819
10.2.2 Entropy Layer 820
10.2.3 Viscous Interaction 821
10.2.4 High-Temperature Effects 822
10.2.5 Low-Density Flow 823
10.2.6 Recapitulation 827
10.3 Newtonian Law for Hypersonic Flow 827
10.4 Some Comments About Hypersonic- Airplanes 833
10.5 Summary and Review 844
Bibliography 845
Problems 845
Appendix A：Standard Atmosphere，SI Units 847
Appendix B：Standard Atmosphere，EnglishEngineering Units 857
Appendix C：Symbols and Conversion Factors 865
Appendix D：Airfoil Data 866
Answer Key 895
Index 899