Chapter 1 The Structure of Materials：Overview 1
1.1 Descriptors and Averaging 3
1.2 Preliminary Concepts 5
1.2.1 Symmetry 5
1.2.2 Bonding 11
Types of Bonds 12
Structural Descriptors of Bonded Materials 15
Molecular Geometry 17
Polyatomic Covalently Bonded Molecules：Electron-Domain Theory 18
Shape Diversity in Large Molecules and Macromolecules 20
1.2.3 Coordination Number 22
1.2.4 Packing Fraction 22
1.2.5 Order and Disorder 23
1.3 Structure of Materials Roadmap 25
References 28
Additional Reading 28
Exercises 28
Chapter 2 Noncrystalline State 31
2.1 Generic Descriptors 35
2.1.1 Short-Range Order 35
2.1.2 The Glass Transition and Free Volume 37
2.1.3 Pair-Distribution Function 39
2.1.4 Symmetry of Glass Structure and Physical Properties 43
2.2 Hard-Sphere Models 43
2.2.1 Bernal’s Random Close-Packed Sphere Model 44
2.2.1 Voronoi Polyhedra 48
2.3 Random-Walk Models 51
2.3.1 Brownian Motion and Diffusion 51
2.3.2 Polymeric Glasses and Melts 56
Thermoplastics 57
Polymer Conformations 60
Polymer Composition，Architecture and Tacticity 61
2.4 Network Models 63
2.4.1 Oxide Glasses 65
2.4.2 Thermosetting Polymers 69
2.4.3 Chalcogenide Glasses 72
Xerography：An Application of Noncrystalline Semiconductors 73
2.5 Fractal Models 74
2.5.1 Dilation Symmetry and Fractal Dimension 74
2.5.2 Ordered Fractals 76
2.5.3 Irregular Fractals 77
2.5.4 Diffusion-Limited Aggregation 77
2.5.5 Fractals and Fracture 80
References 80
Additional Reading 81
Exercises 81
Chapter 3 Crystalline State 89
3.1 The Crystallography of Two Dimensions 91
3.1.1 Translational Symmetry 91
Lattices 91
Primitive Cells，Multiple Cells，and Unit Cells 93
Notation for Rational Points and Rational Lines 95
3.1.2 Reflectional and Glide Symmetry 97
3.1.3 Rotational Symmetry 99
Proper Rotation Axes 99
Limitation of Rotational Symmetries in Crystals due to Translational Periodicity 101
3.1.4 Plane Point Groups 103
Derivation of Plane Point Groups by Combining Reflections and Rotations 103
General and Special Positions 106
International and Schoenflies Symbols 107
3.1.5 The Five Distinct Plane Lattices 108
Plane Lattice Nets Arising from Crystallographic Rotation Axes and Translations 109
Lattice Nets Arising from Mirror Lines and Translations 112
3.1.6 Plane Groups 114
Addition of Reflectional Symmetry to Plane Lattices 116
The Seventeen Distinct Crystallographic Plane Groups 117
3.1.7 The International Tables for Crystallography：Plane Groups 119
Symbols and Notation 120
Description of Two-Dimensional Patterns by Crystallographic Data 122
Generation of Two-Dimensional Patterns from Crystallographic Data 124
Summary of Information Concerning Plane Groups 126
3.2 The Crystallography of Three Dimensions 126
3.2.1 Symmetry Operations Unique to Three Dimensions 126
Inversion 126
Rotoinversion 127
Rotoreflection 129
Screw Axes 130
3.2.2 Techniques for Three-Dimensional Spatial Relationships 135
Rational Intercept Plane：Miller Indices 135
Direction Common to Two Planes，Zone Axes，Weiss Zone Law 138
Spherical Trigonometry 140
Stereographic Projection 143
3.2.3 Axial Combinations of Rotational Symmetries 146
Simultaneous Rotational Symmetries 146
Permissible Combinations of Rotational Axes in Three-Dimensional Crystals 147
3.2.4 The Thirty-Two Crystallographic Point Groups 151
Decomposition of Improper Rotation Axes 152
Derivation of Point Groups by Adding Extenders to Permissible Axial Combinations 153
Schoenflies Notation for the Crystallographic Point Groups 158
Laue Groups 159
3.2.5 Space Lattices 159
Principles of Derivation by Stacking of Plane Lattices 162
The Fourteen Bravais Lattices and Six Crystal Systems 166
Conventional Unit Cells for the Crystal Lattices 168
3.2.6 Space Groups 170
Glide Planes 170
Derivation Method for Space Groups 172
3.2.7 The International Tables for Crystallography：Space Groups 173
3.3 Symmetry Constraints on Material Properties 179
3.3.1 Transformation of a Vector 181
3.3.2 Transformation of a Tensor 181
3.3.3 Tensor Properties of Crystals 182
3.3.4 Symmetry Constraints 185
3.4 Hard-Sphere Packing and Crystal Structure 189
3.4.1 Close-Packed Structures 191
3.4.2 Interstitial Sites in Close-Packed Structures 194
3.4.3 Close Packing in Ionic Compounds 195
3.5 Quasicrystals 196
3.5.1 Aperiodic Tiling Patterns 197
3.5.2 Icosahedral Structures in Crystals 201
References 201
Additional Reading 202
Exercises 202
Chapter 4 Liquid-Crystalline State 213
4.1 Structural Classes of Liquid Crystals 218
4.1.1 Nematic Phase 220
4.1.2 Twisted Nematic Phase 221
4.1.3 Smectic Phase 223
4.1.4 Columnar Phase 226
4.2 Descriptors for Liquid Crystals 227
4.2.1 Pair-Distribution Function 227
4.2.2 Orientational Order Parameter 228
4.2.3 Translational Order Parameter 231
4.3 Mesophase Texture and Identification of Liquid-Crystalline Phases 233
4.4 Applications of Liquid Crystals 233
4.4.1 Surfactants 233
4.4.2 Liquid-Crystalline Fibers 235
4.4.3 Liquid-Crystal Displays 237
4.4.4 Next-Generation Flexible Liquid-Crystal Displays 239
4.5 Plastic Crystals 242
References 242
Additional Reading 243
Exercises 243
Chapter 5 Imperfections in Ordered Media 249
5.1 Point Imperfections 251
5.1.1 Vacancies 251
5.1.2 Interstitials 255
5.1.3 Point Imperfections in Molecular Crystals 257
5.1.4 Mobility of Point Imperfections 260
5.1.5 Solid Solutions 260
5.1.6 Point Imperfections in Ionic Crystals 263
Kroger-Vink Notation 264
Schottky and Frenkel Imperfections 265
Imperfections Associated with Impurities 267
5.2 Line Imperfections 271
5.2.1 Dislocations 273
Evidence for Dislocations 276
Characterization of Dislocations：Tangent Vector and Burgers Vector 280
Dislocation Motion by Slip and Climb 283
Dislocation Loops 287
Slip Systems 290
Resolved Shear Stress on a Dislocation 294
Elastic Energy of Dislocations 298
Strengthening Mechanisms in Crystals 298
Generation of Dislocations 304
Dislocations in Columnar Crystals 307
5.2.2 Disclinations 307
5.3 Surface Imperfections 313
5.3.1 Surface Tension and Surface Free Energy 313
5.3.2 Geometry of Grain Structures 316
5.3.3 Equilibrium at Interfacial Junctions 318
5.3.4 Structure of Crystalline Interfaces 321
Stacking Faults 322
Antiphase Boundaries 324
Grain Boundaries 327
Interphase Grain Boundaries 332
Grain Boundaries in Block Copolymers 334
Magnetic Domain Walls 335
Walls in Liquid Crystals 339
5.4 Imperfections and Symmetry Breaking 340
References 340
Additional Reading 341
Exercises 341
Chapter 6 Microstructure 349
6.1 Structural Hierarchies 350
6.1.1 Structural Hierarchy in a Metal Forging 352
6.1.2 Structural Hierarchy in a Semicrystalline Polymer 354
6.2 Microstructures Arising from Special Processing 357
6.2.1 Deformation Microstructures 358
Deformation Processing and Crystallographic Texture 358
Microstructures of Deformed Polycrystalline Materials 359
Characterization of Textures：X-Ray Pole Figures 361
6.2.2 Transformation Microstructures 364
Solidification Microstructures 364
Solid-Solid Transformation Microstructures 370
Composite Microstructures 374
6.3 Microstructural Case Studies 379
6.3.1 Nickel-Base Superalloys 380
6.3.2 Thermoset/Carbon-Fiber Composite Laminates 385
6.4 Where Do We Go From Here？ 389
References 391
Additional Reading 391
Exercises 393
Index 397