1 Introduction 1
Classification and Individualization of Physical Evidence 5
Collection and Preservation of Physical Evidence 8
Important Considerations in Crime Scene Investigations 15
Courtroom Testimony Tips 22
Before Going to Court 22
Giving Expert Testimony 22
Cross -Examination 23
Other Points 23
Teamwork 24
Professional Development 24
Chapter Questions 25
2 First Officer at the Crime Scene 27
The Case of the Lady in Cement 27
First Officer at the Scene 30
Recording the Time 35
When a Suspect Is Found at the Scene 35
Entering the Scene Proper 36
Protecting the Integrity of the Scene 37
Injured Person on the Scene 38
Dead Person on the Scene 39
Summoning the Coroner/Medical Examiner 39
Firearms and Ammunition on the Scene 40
What to Do Until Investigating Personnel Arrive 41
Continued Protection of the Scene 42
Chapter Questions 48
3 The Crime Scene Investigator 51
Introduction and Objectives 51
Actual Examination of the Scene 60
Chapter Questions 65
4 Specialized Personnel at the Crime Scene 67
Introduction 67
Health and Safety Issues at Crime Scenes 75
Terrorist Crime Scenes 76
Conclusion 77
Chapter Questions 77
5 Processing the Crime Scene 79
Plan of Action 79
Note Taking 79
Crime Scene Search 81
Crime Scene Photography 84
Types of Cameras 84
Types of Media 87
Number of Photographs 87
Admissibility of Photographs 92
Video 92
Sketching the Crime Scene 93
Information Included in Crime Scene Sketches 94
Equipment 94
Types of Sketches 94
Locating Objects in the Sketch 95
Computer Programs 95
Admissibility of Sketches 95
Collection of Evidence 96
Chapter Questions 100
6 Establishing Identity 103
Fingerprints and Palm Prints 103
How Does Fingerprint Evidence Occur? 103
Where to Look for Fingerprints 104
Different Types of Fingerprints 107
Fingerprint Developing Techniques 108
Development with Powders 108
Lasers and Alternative Light Sources 115
Image Processing 117
Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems 117
Preservation Techniques 118
Preservation by Photography 118
Preservation of Plastic Fingerprints 118
Preservation with Fingerprint-Lifting Tape 119
How Long Does a Fingerprint Remain on an Object? 119
Effect of Temperature Conditions on the Possibility of Developing Fingerprints 120
Examination of Developed Fingerprints 120
Palm Prints 120
Prints from the Sole of the Foot 120
Ear, Lip, and Other Prints 121
Packing Objects on Which Prints Are Found 121
Taking Fingerprints for Elimination 121
Prints of Gloves 121
Prints of Other Coverings 123
Latent Fingerprints on Human Skin 124
Handwriting Examination 124
Identification of Human Remains 129
Taking Fingerprints 131
Photographing 135
Marks of Trades or Occupations 136
Making a Description 137
Deceased's Clothing 138
Laundry Marks 139
Watchmaker's Marks 139
Jewelry 140
Eyeglasses 140
Teeth 140
Medical Devices 142
Facial Reconstruction 142
Determination of Gender 143
Determination of Age 143
Length of Body 144
Hair Color 144
DNA as a Means of Identification 144
Identification in Mass Disasters 145
Chapter Questions 149
7 Trace Evidence 151
Introduction 151
Sources of Trace Evidence 155
Clothing 155
Footwear 157
Evidence from the Body 157
Other Objects as Sources of Trace Evidence 157
Collection and Preservation of Trace Evidence 162
Examples of Trace Evidence 163
Building Materials 163
Asbestos 164
Safe Insulation 164
Paint 164
Rust 166
Metals 166
Textiles and Fibers 167
Buttons 171
Cordage and Rope 171
Cigarettes and Tobacco 172
Matches 174
Burned Paper 174
Ash 175
Soil 175
Wood 176
Chips and Splinters of Wood 177
Sawdust, Wood Meal, or Particles of Finely Powdered Wood 177
Plant Material 177
Glass 178
Broken Panes of Glass 179
Glass Perforated by a Bullet 180
Cracked or Burst Panes of Glass 181
Glass Splinters 182
Objects Left at the Crime Scene 183
Paper 183
Articles of Clothing 183
Product Markings 183
Foodstuffs 184
Cosmetics 184
Hair 185
Feathers 187
Electrical Wire 187
Broken Tools 188
Tape 189
Headlamps 189
Chapter Questions 190
8 Blood, Forensic Biology, and DNA 193
A Word of Caution! 193
Contamination 194
Bloodstain Pattern Analysis 194
Presumptive Tests for Blood 198
Searching for Bloodstains 202
Description and Recording of Bloodstains 205
Collection and Preservation of Bloodstains 205
Removal of Bloodstains 206
Bloodstained Objects 206
Semen-Stained Objects 207
Forensic DNA Typing 209
PCR-Based Technology 210
High Sensitivity DNA Testing/Touch DNA 211
Mitochondrial DNA 212
Y-STRs 213
CODIS 213
Forensic DNA and Unsolved Cases 214
Partial Matches and Familial Searching 215
Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods 215
DNA Cases 215
Molecular Autopsy 217
Missing Persons 218
Biogeographical Ancestry 219
The Future 219
Chapter Questions 219
9 Impression Evidence 221
Introduction 221
Footprints 226
Value of Footprints 227
Preservation of Footwear and Tire Impressions 228
Footprints on Floors 228
Preservation of Footwear Evidence 229
Photographing Footwear Impressions 229
Casting with Dental Stone 232
Casting Water-Filled Impressions 232
Casting Impressions in Snow 233
Preservation of Footprints (Dust Prints) 234
Taking Comparison Footprints from a Suspect 235
Comparison of Footprints 235
Marks on Clothes and Parts of the Body 236
Fabric Marks 236
Tooth Marks 238
Preservation of Bite Marks 239
Casting Material for Bite Mark Evidence 240
Tool Marks 240
Preservation of Tool Marks 242
Casting Tool Marks 242
Trace Evidence on Tools 242
Preserving a Tool 245
Fragments of Tools 246
Chapter Questions 247
10 Firearms Examination 249
Characteristics of Firearms 249
Ammunition 252
Firearms Evidence 253
Gunshot Residue (GSR) Analysis 254
Collecting Firearms Evidence 256
Handling of Firearms 259
Cartridge Cases 263
Bullets 266
Marking Bullets 267
Small Shot 271
Test Firing 272
Powder Pattern Examination 273
National Integrated Ballistic Information Network 275
Chapter Questions 276
11 Arson and Explosives 279
Introduction 279
Physical Evidence 282
Explosives 292
Low Explosives 293
High Explosives 294
Blasting Agents 298
Military Explosives 298
Homemade Explosives 299
Bomb Scene Investigation 301
Chapter Questions 305
12 Illicit Drugs and Toxicology 307
Psychoactive Drugs 307
Central Nervous System Depressants 307
Central Nervous System Stimulants 309
Hallucinogens 312
Cannabis 312
Designer Drugs 314
Steroids 315
Nonprescription Drugs 315
Inhalants 316
Crime Scene Search 316
Searching a Suspect 316
Searching a Dwelling 317
Searching a Vehicle 317
Clandestine Drug Laboratories 318
Collection and Preservation of Evidence 320
Field Investigation Drug Officer 322
Toxicology 323
U.S. DEA Drug Schedule Classification 324
Schedule Ⅰ 324
Schedule Ⅱ 325
Schedule Ⅲ 325
Schedule Ⅳ 325
Schedule Ⅴ 325
Chapter Questions 326
13 Investigating Sexual Assault 329
Rape 329
Preliminary Interview 329
Medical Examination 330
Date Rape Drugs 336
Other Assaults 337
Sexual Child Molestation and Incest 337
Public Lewdness/Forcible Touching 339
Conclusion 340
Chapter Questions 340
14 Burglary Investigation 343
Points of Entry 345
Entry through Windows 345
Entry through Doors 345
Entry through Basement Windows and Skylights 348
Entry through Roofs 348
Entry through Walls 348
Entry through Floors 350
Simulated Burglaries 350
Detailed Examination of the Scene 351
Safe Burglaries 353
Safe Burglaries Using Explosives 355
Chapter Questions 358
15 Motor Vehicle Investigation 361
Vehicle Theft 361
Abandoned Vehicles 364
Homicide in a Vehicle 366
Hit-and-Run Investigation 367
Marks from Vehicles 372
Wheel Marks 372
Skid Marks 374
Chapter Questions 377
16 Homicide Investigation 379
Murder, Suicide, or Accident? 380
Cause of Death 380
Suicide 381
Signs of Struggle 383
Location of Weapon 385
Examination of a Dead Body at the Crime Scene 386
Murder 388
Detailed Examination of the Scene of the Crime 390
Outdoor Crime Scenes 397
Discovering a Body Hidden at Another Location 400
Investigation of a Greatly Altered Body or Skeleton 401
Scene of Discovery 403
Outdoors 403
Indoors 407
Packing and Transporting 410
Examining Remains of Clothing and Other Objects 411
Clothing 411
Boots and Shoes 412
Other Objects 412
Estimating the Time of Death 412
Postmortem Signs of Death 412
Changes in the Eyes 413
Temperature of the Body 413
Rigidity of the Body 413
Lividity 413
Decomposition of the Body 414
Action of Insects and Other Animals on a Dead Body 415
Other Indications of Time of Death 417
Autopsy 418
Injuries from External Mechanical Violence 419
Abrasions 419
Contusions or Bruises 420
Crushing Wounds 420
Bone Injuries 421
Injuries from Sharp External Violence 421
Cutting Wounds 421
Stab Wounds 422
Chopping Wounds 426
Marks or Damage on Clothing 426
Defense Injuries 426
Firearm Injuries 427
Bullet Injuries 427
Close and Distant Shots 429
Marks from Primers 430
Traces from Bullets 430
Traces from Cartridge Cases 431
Traces from the Barrel of the Weapon 431
Injuries from Small Shot 431
Damage to Clothes from Shooting 431
Modes of Death from Shooting 431
Explosion Injuries 433
Death by Suffocation 434
Hanging 434
Strangling 436
Blocking of the Mouth or Nose 438
Blocking of the Larynx and Air Passages 439
Squeezing to Death 439
Drowning 439
Death from Electric Currents 440
Violent Death in Fires 440
Death by Freezing 441
Death by Poisoning 441
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning 444
Rape-Homicide and Sexual Assault-Related Murders 445
Infanticide and Child Abuse 447
Trunk Murder, Dismemberment of the Body 448
Accidental Death 448
Serial Murders 449
Chapter Questions 450
17 Digital Evidence 453
Computer Seizure 454
Steps to Remember 455
Collecting Video Evidence 457
Determine if There Is a Video 457
Stop the Recorder 458
Confiscate the Recording Medium Immediately 458
Document the Video System's Physical Relationship to the Crime Scene 460
Seek Technical Assistance if Problems Occur 460
Conclusion 461
Chapter Questions 462
Appendix A: Equipment for Crime Scene Investigations 463
Appendix B: Forensic Science-Related Websites 467
Bibliography 473
Index 495