Introduction 3
Approaches to Jewish Law 3
The Value of Comparative Judaic Law Studies 7
Problems and Methodology in the Study of Ancient Law 8
Part One Law in the Ancient Near East,2200 B.C.E.—350 B.C.E. 11
Ⅰ.THE SOCIAL CONTEXTS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST 13
A.REGIONAL CONTEXTS 13
1.Introduction 13
2.The Development of Mesopotamian and Egyptian Civilizations 13
3.Ethnic Movements and Power Alignments among the Nation-States of the Ancient Near East 14
4.Power Processes and Alignments among the Ancient Nation-States 17
5.The Common Law, Culture, and Languages of Western Asia 18
B.NATIONAL CONTEXTS: THE INTERNAL POWER STRUCTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATION-STATES 19
1.The Interrelationship of Religion, Power, and Law in the Ancient World 19
a.Polytheistic Religions in the Ancient Near East 19
b.The Earthly State as Part of the Polytheistic Cosmic Power Structure 19
c.The Sharing of Power by King and Assembly 20
d.The City-States 21
e.The Role and Status of Law in Mesopotamian Society 21
f.The Role and Status of Law in the Egyptian State 22
g.The Persian State 23
2.Other Social Contexts of Law 23
a.Class Structure and the Economy 23
（1） Mesopotamia 23
（2） Egypt 24
b.Miscellaneous Social Contexts 24
Ⅱ.BIBLICAL LAW IN CONTEXTUAL PERSPECTIVE 26
A.AN OVERVIEW OF JEWISH HISTORY IN THE BIBLICAL ERA 26
1.Sources of Jewish Biblical History 26
2.The Early Hebrews 27
3.The Patriarchs 27
4.The Bondage in Egypt 27
5.The Exodus from Egypt and the Sinai Covenant 28
6.The Conquest of the Land of Canaan 28
7.The Era of the Judges 29
8.The Monarchy in Israel 29
a.The First King 29
b.The Davidic Dynasty 30
c.The Internal Power Structure of the Davidic Monarchy 31
9.The Division of the Jewish State: Judah and Israel 31
10.Royal Rule in Judah and Israel 32
11.The Rise of Assyria and Babylonia and the Demise of the Northern Jewish State 32
12.The Destruction of Judah and of the Temple 34
13.The Babylonian Exile and the Return to Judea 34
B.THE SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS OF BIBLICAL LAW: THE PRE- PENTATEUCHAL BASIS OF POST-PENTA- TEUCHAL PRACTICES 35
1.The Cultural Contexts 35
2.The Economic Framework 36
3.The Social Structure 37
C.THE EFFECT OF MESOPOTAMIAN AND EGYPTIAN CULTURES ON BIBLICAL LAW 37
D.STUDIES IN BIBLICAL LEGAL DOCUMENTS 39
1.Introduction to Selections from the Torah （the Pentateuch） 39
2.Selections from the Torah （Pentateuch） 39
a.Genesis 39
（1） Homicide, Repentance, and Punishment （Genesis 4:8-16） 40
（2） A Reckoning for Life （Genesis 9:1-6） 41
b.Exodus 42
（1） The Institution of Courts among the Israelites （Exodus 18:13-27） 42
（2） The Giving of the Law at Mt.Sinai （Exodus 19:1-25） 42
（3） The Decalogue （Exodus 20:1-18） 43
（4） Injury to Persons or Property （Exodus 21:12-37） 44
（5） Theft and Other Tortious Damage （Exodus 22:1-26） 46
（6） Carrying Out Justice, Obli- gations to the Poor, and Other Miscellaneous Norms （Exodus 23:1-12） 47
（7） The Covenant with God to Accept the Law （Exodus 24:3-8, 12-18） 47
c.Leviticus 48
（1） Avoiding Practices Abhorrent to God （Leviticus 18:27-30） 48
（2） Attaining Holiness； Conduct toward One’s Fellows （Leviticus 19:1-4, 9-18, 29, 32-37） 48
（3） A People Apart in Holiness （Leviticus 20:22-26） 49
（4） Tortious Injuries （Leviticus 24:17-22） 49
d.Numbers 49
（1） Cities of Refuge （Numbers 35:9-34） 49
e.Deuteronomy 52
（1） Establishing Courts and Criminal Procedure （Deuter- onomy 16:18-20, 17:2-13） 52
（2） Kingship （Deuteronomy 17:14-20） 53
（3） The Unwitting Manslayer and False Witnesses （Deuteronomy 19:1-13, 15-21） 54
（4） Absolution from Guilt for Homicide （Deuteronomy 21:1-9, 22-23） 55
（5） Individual Dignity and Responsibility （Deuteronomy 24:6-17） 56
（6） Limitations on Flogging （Deuteronomy 25:1-3） 56
（7） Helping a Victim of Unjust Aggression （Deuteronomy 25:11-12） 57
E.STUDIES IN NONBIBLICAL LEGAL DOCUMENTS 57
1.Cuneiform Law and the History of Civilization （by E.A.Speiser） 57
2.Authority and Law in Ancient Egypt （by John A.Wilson） 63
3.Early Law and Civilization （by E.A. Speiser） 66
4.Cuneiform Codes 72
a.The Code of Hammurabi （trans- lated by Theophile J.Meek） 72
b.The Laws of Ur-Nammu （trans- lated by J.J.Finkelstein） 83
c.Lipit-Ishtar Law Code （translated by S.N.Kramer） 85
d.The Laws of Eshnunna （trans- lated by Albrecht Goetze） 88
e.The Middle Assyrian Laws （translated by Theophile J.Meek） 91
f.The Hittite Laws （translated by Albrecht Goetze） 95
g.Law in the Ancient Near East （by J.J.Finkelstein） 99
F.A COMPARISON OF JEWISH AND CUNEI- FORM CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVES 102
1.Bible and Babel: A Comparative Study of the Hebrew and Babylonian Religious Spirit （by J.J.Finkel- stein） 102
2.“Babel-Bible”: A Mesopotamian View （by J.J.Finkelstein） 115
3.The Problem of the Prologue and Epilogue to the Book of the Cove- nant （by S.Paul） 120
4.Other Comparisons between Biblical and Mesopotamian Legal Perspec- tives 122
Ⅲ.BIBLICAL AND CUNEIFORM LEGAL SYSTEMS IN OPERATION: AUTHORI- TATIVE DECISION-MAKING IN BIBLICAL AND CUNEIFORM LAW 124
A.THE MAKING OF THE LAW: WHO PRESCRIBED THE LAW? 124
1.The King 124
a.The Manner of the King （by E.A.Speiser） 124
b.The Edict of Ammisaduqa （translated by J.J.Finkelstein） 127
2.The Community 130
a.Primitive Democracy in Ancient Mesopotamia （by Thorkild Jacobsen） 130
B.THE APPLICATION OF THE LAW 136
1.Introduction 136
2.The Courts 136
a.King Hammurapi as Judge （by W.F.Leemans） 136
b.Courts in the Biblical Era: The Judicial Role of the Biblical King 139
c.Application of the Law by Priests 140
3.The Role of the Tribe and Family in Applying Criminal Sanctions 140
a.The Biblical Conception of Asylum （by Moshe Greenberg） 140
4.Criminal Sanctions 143
a.Some Postulates of Biblical Criminal Law （by Moshe Greenberg） 143
b.Reflections on Biblical Criminal Law （by Bernard S.Jackson） 151
5.Case Studies in Criminal Law 158
a.Murder and Accidental Death 158
（1） Avenger of Blood （by Moshe Greenberg） 158
（2） Banishment （by Moshe Greenberg） 158
（3） Blood Guilt （by Moshe Greenberg） 159
（4） City of Refuge （by Moshe Greenberg） 160
b.An Ancient Mesopotamian Trial for Homicide （by T.Jacobsen） 161
6.Rape, Adultery, and Seduction 163
a.Sex Offenses in Sumerian Laws （by J.J.Finkelstein） 163
b.A Textbook Case of Adultery in Ancient Mesopotamia （by Samuel Greengus） 171
7.Assault 174
a.An Eye for an Eye （by A.S. Diamond） 174
8.Other Criminal Trials 177
a.Results of a Trial for Conspiracy （in Egypt） （by J.Pritchard） 177
Part Two Talmudic Law in the Eras of the Second Jewish Commonwealth, Ancient Greece, the Hellenist States, Rome, and the Early Middle Ages, 350 B.C.E.-630 C.E. 181
Ⅳ.HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION TO TALMUDIC LAW 183
A.THE HELLENIST MILIEU 183
1.The Macedonian and Greek Conquest of the Orient 183
2.The External Power Alignments of the Hellenist States 183
3.Cultural and Religious Perspectives in the Hellenist Near East 183
B.JEWISH HISTORY IN THE HELLENIST ERA: AN OVERVIEW 184
1.Judea under the Ptolemies and Seleucids 184
2.The Effect of Hellenist Culture on the Jews 184
3.The Hasmonean Revolt 185
4.Roman Rule of Judea 186
5.The Destruction of the Second Jewish Commonwealth and Temple 186
6.The Bar Kokhba Revolt 186
7.The Spread of Christianity 187
8.The Jews in Egypt 187
C.INTERNAL POWER BLOCS IN JUDEA DURING THE SECOND COMMONWEALTH 188
1.The Supreme Judicial-Legislative Body 188
2.The Priesthood 188
3.The Pharisees 188
4.The Sadducees 189
5.The Essenes 189
6.The Army 189
D.THE JEWS IN BABYLONIA: DEMO- GRAPHIC, ECONOMIC, AND CULTURAL CONDITIONS 189
Ⅴ.TALMUDIC LAW IN GENERAL: THE EFFECT OF CULTURAL AND SOCIO- ECONOMIC CONDITIONS ON TALMUDIC LAW 191
A.GENERAL CONCEPTIONS OF LAW AND AUTHORITY 191
1.The Torah before the Creation of the World （Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat88b） 191
2.Talmudic Legal Perspectives 191
3.The Oral Law （by Moshe ben Maimon） 197
4.The Oral Law and Its Relation to the Written Law （by Z.H.Chajes） 200
B.APPLYING THE LAW: PRINCIPLES OF LEGAL INTERPRETATION 204
1.The Thirteen Canons of Scriptural Interpretation 204
2.The Hermeneutic Principles and Their Application （by Bernard Rosenzweig） 205
C.ADJUSTMENTS IN THE LAW TO MEET CRISES AND CHANGED CONDITIONS: DOCUMENTARY STUDIES 211
1.The Law Is Not in Heaven （Baba Metzia 59b, 86a） 211
2.Moses as the Source of All Law （Menakhot 29b） 215
3.The Power to Abrogate the Law （Yebamot 89b） 216
4.The Institution of the Prusbul by Hillel （Gittin 36a） 221
5.Adjustments in Family Law 223
Ⅵ.THE LEGAL SYSTEM IN OPERATION 226
A.JEWISH LOSS OF POWER AND EXILE: THE IMPACT ON JEWISH LAW OF EXISTING IN AN ALIEN AUTHORITY AND POWER SYSTEM 226
1.Non-Jews as the Source of Power for Jewish Decision-Makers: Changes from a Hierarchical Authority and Power System to a Dual-Co-Archical System 226
2.The Internal Power Structure: Authoritative Decision-Making after the Second Jewish Commonwealth； Institutional Patterns and Participants 226
3.Jewish Decision-Making in a Dual Authority System 227
a.Early Palestine and Babylonia 227
b.Reduction in Jewish Power Resulting from the Destruction of the Second Jewish State and Temple 227
c.Roman Palestine: The Patri- archate 228
d.Persian and Parthian Babylonia: The Exilarchate 229
e.Comparisons of Decision-Making Powers of the Exilarch and the Nasi 231
f.The Effects of Non-Jewish Authority Systems on Jewish Law 232
（1） The Exilarchate and Patri- archate 232
（2） Incorporating Non-Jewish Norms into Jewish Law 233
（3） Religious Perspectives Concerning the Authority of a Jewish Royal Agent to Impose Biblically Pro- hibited Sanctions 234
g.Notions of Authority and Control 235
B.PARTICIPANTS IN THE LEGAL PROCESS: DECISION-MAKING BY PRESCRIBERS AND APPLIERS 236
1.The King 236
2.The Judicial System 237
a.The High Court （Sanhedrin） during the Second Jewish Commonwealth 237
b.Jewish Courts after the Destruc- tion of the Second Jewish Commonwealth 239
c.Lower Courts of Twenty-three Judges and of Three Judges 239
d.One-Judge Courts 241
e.Appellate Review 241
f.Other Superior Courts 241
g.Courts o f Special Jurisdiction 242
h.Lay Courts 242
i.Jewish Courts in Babylonia 244
3.The Academies of Law and Reli- gion headed by the Gaonim 244
4.Lay Decision-Makers 245
a.Perspectives Concerning Deci- sion-Making by the Lay Communal Polity 245
b.Lay Communal Decision- Making in the Roman Empire 248
c.Lay Communal Decision- Making in Roman Palestine 248
C.DOCUMENTARY STUDIES IN CRIMINAL LAW 249
1.General Attitudes: The Sanctity and Dignity of Life 249
a.Laws Concerning a Murderer and the Preservation of Life （by Moshe ben Maimon） 249
2.Criminal Procedure: Rights of the Criminal Defendant 260
a.Selections from the Talmud, Sanhedrin, Chapter 1（Mishnah Ⅳ） 260
b.Selections from the Talmud, Sanhedrin, Chapter 4 （Mishnah Ⅰ-Ⅳ） 261
c.Selections from the Talmud, Sanhedrin, Chapter 4 （Mishnah Ⅴ） 263
d.The Talmudic Prototype of Rodef （Sanhedrin 49a） 265
e.Obstacles to, and Views Con- cerning, Capital Punishment in Talmudic Law （Makkot 6b and 7a） 265
f.The Trial of a Capital Case （by Moshe ben Maimon） 267
D.THE RATIONALE OF SANCTIONING 275
1.Punishment and Deterrence （Maimonides, Guide for the Per- plexed 3:41） 275
2.Atonement （S.R.Hirsch, Com- mentary on Genesis 9:6） 276
E.AN APPRAISAL OF THE FUNCTION OF THE JUDICIARY IN MAINTAINING PUBLIC ORDER AND IMPOSING CRIMINAL SANCTIONS 277
Part Three Jewish Law in the Middle Ages （post 630 C.E.） 281
Ⅶ.POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS OF JEWISH DECISION-MAKING IN THE MIDDLE AGES 283
A.JEWS IN CHRISTIAN AND ISLAMIC COUNTRIES 283
B.THE CHURCH AND THE JEWS IN WESTERN EUROPE 284
C.CHANGES IN THE JEWISH CONDITION IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 285
1.Economic Changes and Jewish Population Shifts 285
2.The Growth of Jewish Legal and Religious Culture in the West 286
3.The Urbanization of Jewish Life in Europe 286
4.Increased Jewish Commercial Activity 287
5.The Political and Power Status of Jews in Medieval Europe 287
D.THE CRUSADES 287
E.THE EFFECTS OF THE CRUSADES 288
1.Changes in the Economic Position of the Jews 288
2.The Degraded Social Position of the Jews 289
F.THE GROWTH OF JEWISH COMMUNITIES IN POLAND 289
G.THE SPANISH INQUISITION AND EXPULSION FROM SPAIN 290
H.EFFECTS OF THE RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMATION ON JEWISH LIFE 291
I.THE END OF JEWISH COMMUNAL AUTONOMY AND THE IMPOSITION OF THE GHETTO 291
Ⅷ.THE JEWISH LEGAL SYSTEM IN OPERATION 292
A.JEWISH COMMUNAL AUTONOMY AND DECISION-MAKING 292
1.Societal Contexts of Jewish Communal Decision-Making 292
a.The Mediterranean Lands in General 294
b.Spain 294
c.Northern Europe 294
d.Poland and Lithuania 295
e.The Near East under Islam 296
（1） Jewish Authoritarian Leadership 296
（2） The Exilarchate and the Gaonate （Deanship of the Law Academies） 297
f.Other Social Contexts of Jewish Decision-Making 298
2.Documentary Studies of Autonomous Jewish Communal Decision-Making 298
a.An Old Medieval Form forAppointing a Jewish CommunalLeader and Decision-Maker（by Judah Al-Barceloni） 298
b.Regional and TranscommunalDecision-Making 299
（1） Southern Europe 300
（a） Portugal 300
（b） Spain 300
（c） The Ordinances of theSynod at Valladolid,Spain （1432） 300
（2） Northern Europe 306
（a） Synods and ChiefRabbis: France,Germany, and England 306
（b） The Ordinances of theFranco-German Synodat Troyes （1150） 307
（c） Takkanot （by M.Elon） 308
（3） Poland and Lithuania 309
（4） Central Europe 311
（5） Summary 311
B.PARTICIPANTS IN JEWISH DECISION-MAKING 312
1.The Constitutive Scheme of JewishCommunal Decision-Making:Participants and Institutions 312
a.Lay Communal Decision-Making 312
（1） Perspectives ConcerningLimitations on CommunalAuthority 312
（2） The Scope of CommunalDecision-Making 312
（a） Taxation and EconomicRegulation 312
（b） Exclusion of New-comers 313
（c） MiscellaneousPrescriptions 313
（d） Changes in TraditionalLaw 313
（3） The Relationship of LawCommunal Decision-Makingto Traditional JewishDecision-Making 314
（4） Takkanot ha’Kahal（by M.Elon） 315
（5） Procedures and Institutionsin Lay Decision-Making 316
（a） The Lay Electorate 316
（b） Communal Ofcials 316
b.The Role of the Academies inDecision-Making 317
（1） Education 318
（2） The Academy Courts 318
（3） The Gaonic Responsa,Treatises, and Prescriptions 318
（4） The Academies versus the Exilarchate 319
（5） Sources of Income of the Babylonian Academies 320
（6） The Final Decline of the Exilarchate and Gaonate 320
c.The Scholar-Religious Leader as Decision-Maker 320
（1） The Payment of Compensa- tion to Scholar-Religious Leaders 321
（2） Sources of Income of the Salaried Community Rabbis 322
（3） The Community Rabbi as Decision-Maker 323
（4） Selecting the Community Rabbi 325
d.Conflicts and Sharing o f Decision- Making Powers between Rabbis and Lay Leaders 327
（1） Rabbi-Scholar Approval and Veto of Lay Communal Prescriptions 327
（2） Rabbinic Nullification of Communal Enactments； Majority Rule and Minority Rights 328
（3） Interpretation of Communal Prescriptions by Rabbis and Scholars 329
（4） Bases of Lay Power 330
（5） Communal Prescriptions for the Allocation of Power among Laymen and Rabbis 331
（6） The Role of the Community Proletariat in Decision- Making 333
（7） Communal Control by Lay Oligarchies 333
2.Jewish Courts in the Middle Ages: A Documentary Study 335
a.Communal Prescriptions for Judicial Systems 336
（1） The Ordinances of the Jewish Community of Moravia （Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries） 336
（2） The Ordinances of the Jewish Community of Mantova, Italy （1677） 341
b.The Selection and Removal of Jewish Judges 344
c.The Compensation of Judges 346
d.The Composition and Number of Judges of Jewish Courts 346
e.The Community Rabbi as Judge 347
f.Jewish Courts in Suburban and Rural Areas 347
g.Appellate Courts 348
h.Lay Courts 350
i.Merchant and Guild Lay Courts 351
j.Intercommunity Courts for Communal and Private Disputes 351
k.Compelling Compliance with Court Subpoenas 353
l.Ex Parte Hearings 354
Ⅸ.ADJUSTING THE LAW TO MEET CHANGED CONDITIONS 355
A.THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW LEGAL INSTITUTIONAL PRACTICES 355
1.Changes in Family Law 355
2.Judicial Procedure 356
3.Residential and Mercantile Protec- tions and Restrictions 356
4.Law Enforcement Officials 356
B.NEW FORMS OF AUTHORITATIVE PRESCRIPTIONS AND DECISIONS FOR A DISPERSED JEWRY 357
1.The Shulhan Aruk: Enduring Code of Jewish Law （by Isadore Twersky） 357
2.Origins and Development of the Responsa by S.Freehoff） 366
C.ADJUSTING CRIMINAL LAW TO CRISES AND NEW CONDITIONS IN THE TALMUDIC ERA AND MIDDLE AGES 375
1.Documentary Case Studies of Extraordinary Sanctions in the Talmudic Era, Uncalled for by Traditional Legal Doctrines 375
a.The Hanging of the Witches （Sanhedrin 45b） 476
b.Amputating the Arm of an Assaulter （Sanhedrin 58b） 376
c.Blinding a Murderer （Sanhedrin 27a-27b） 376
d.Execution without Trial by a Court: Death by Feeding； Execution by the Temple Priests （Sanhedrin 81b） 376
2.Documentary Case Studies of Extraordinary Sanctions in the Middle Ages 378
a.Imposing Sanctions Not Authorized by Law （by Josef Karo） 378
b.Informers 379
（1） The Practice Concerning Informers （by Moshe ben Maimon） 379
（2） Disposing of an Informer （by Asher ben Yehiel） 379
（3） A Case Concerning an Informer （by Shlomo ben Aderet and Meir ben Baruch of Rothenberg） 380
c.Murder 385
（1） Sanctions for Homicide （by Judah ben Asher） 385
（2） Criminal Procedure （by Rabbi Isaac ben Sheshet Perfet） 386
（a） Admissibility of Confessions 387
（b） Providing an Attorney for a Defendant 387
（c） Freeing a Defendant on Bail 388
（d） Accepting Testimony in the Absence of the Accused 388
（e） The Legal Rationale for Capital Punishment 389
（3） Representation by Attorneys in Jewish Courts 391
d.Punishing a Blasphemer （by Asher ben Yehiel） 393
e.Punishing a Fornicator （by Asher ben Yehiel） 393
f.Imprisoning a Thief on Circum- stantial Evidence （by Shimon ben Tsemah Duran） 394
g.Communal Criminal Law Prescriptions 394
（1） Ordinances of the Jewish Community of Cracow, Poland （circa 1595 et seq.） 394
（2） Sanctions Imposed by the Portuguese Jewish Commu- nity in Hamburg, Germany （1655-1670） 395
3.Precedents, Principles, and Rationales for ExtraordinarySanctions and Adjustments in the Law 396
a.Biblical Authority 396
b.Legal Principles 397
c.Rationales 398
4.The Imposition in Practice of Extraordinary Sanctions Contrary to Traditional Norms 400
a.The Biblical Era 400
b.The Talmudic Era 401
5.Sanctions in the Middle Ages 402
a.Capital Punishment 402
b.The Manner of Inflicting the Death Penalty 405
c.Permissible Slaying of “Innocent” Persons 405
（1） In Order to Sancify （or Not to Disgrace） the Lord, or to Strengthen the Faith 406
（2） Choice of Life Situations, or the Preservation of Many Lives 406
d.Gouging of Eyes and Amputation of Limbs 407
e.Branding 409
f.Flogging 410
（1） As a Penalty 410
（2） In the Middle Ages 410
（3） Procedure for Flogging 411
（4） Extraordinary Flogging 412
（5） Flogging of Women 412
g.Imprisonment 412
（1） As a Penalty 413
（2） To Ensure Appearance at Trial or for Sentencing 414
（3） As a Means of Coercion 414
（4） For Debt 414
h.House Arrest 417
i.Excommunication 417
j.Banishment 418
k.Expulsion from the Synagogue 419
l.Humiliation 420
（1） By Public Announcement 420
（2） By Shaving the Head and Beard 420
m.Deprivation of Rights and Privileges 421
n.Denial of the Right to Engage in Certain Occupations 421
o.The “Donkey’s Burial” 421
p.Fines, Levies, and Confiscation of Property 422
6.Appraisal of the Perspectives, Social Contexts, and Outcomes of Extraor- dinary Sanctioning by Jewish Decision-Makers 422
Index 427