The Authors 3
List of Abbreviations 17
Introduction 19
Ⅰ.GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 19
Ⅱ.GENERAL BACKGROUND 23
1.Geography 23
A.Size 23
B.Boundaries 23
2.Industrial Resources 23
A.Transportation 23
B.Physical Resources 24
3.Governmental Structure 24
A.Formal Federal Structure 24
1.Executive Branch 25
2.Legislative Branch 25
3.Judicial Branch 26
4.Administrative Agencies 28
B.Formal State Governmental Structures 29
C.Constitutionally Protected Liberties 30
4.Political Structure 30
5.The Bureaucracy 32
6.The People 32
A.Generally 32
B.The Workforce 36
C.Income Distribution 38
D.Union Membership 41
Ⅲ.SPECIAL DEFINITIONS AND NOTIONS 43
1.Degree of Government Intervention 43
2.Incomes Policy 43
3.Labor Law 44
4.Jurisdiction 45
5.Employee 46
6.Exclusivity and Majoritarian Principles 47
7.Bargaining Units 48
8.Public and Private Sector Employment 48
9.Collective Agreements and Contracts of Hire 49
Ⅳ.HISTORIC BACKGROUND 51
1.Growth of Constitutional Government 51
2.Growth of the Labor Movement 52
A.Development 52
B.Unions Today 53
3.Development of Federal Labor Legislation 53
A.Early Constitutional Struggle 54
B.Development of Modern Labor Legislation 55
1.Railway Labor Act 55
2.Norris-LaGuardia Act 56
3.National Labor Relations Act 58
C.Other Labor Legislation 60
1.Fair Labor Standards Act 60
2.Other Federal Wage-Hour Laws 62
3.Protection from Job Injury 63
4.Social Security Acts and Retirement Benefits 64
5.Unemployment Insurance 65
6.Employment Discrimination 67
Ⅴ.THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN SHAPING AND ADMINISTERING EMPLOYMENT LAW AND LABOR RELATIONS POLICY 69
Ⅵ.SOURCES OF LABOR AND EMPLOYMENT LAW 71
1.Judicial Authority and Case Precedent 71
2.Constitution 72
3.Common Law 72
4.Legislation 72
5.Administrative Processes 72
6.Executive Fiat 73
7.Collective Bargaining 73
8.Arbitration Awards 74
Ⅶ.SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 75
1.Texts 75
2.Looseleaf Texts and Reports 77
3.Government Publications 77
4.Periodicals 78
Part Ⅰ.The Individual Employment Relationship 79
CHAPTER 1.CONCEPTS 79
1.Law of Master-Servant 79
Ⅰ.The Status of Master-Servant 79
Ⅱ.Employee Status Contrasted with Other Relationships 80
Ⅲ.Who is the Employer? 81
2.Basic Characteristics of Employment Contracts 83
Ⅰ.Generally 83
Ⅱ.Capacity to Enter into an Employment Contract 84
Ⅲ.Void, Illegal, and Unenforceable Employment Contracts 86
A.Peonage and Slavery 86
B.Unlawful Occupations 86
C.Licensed Trades and Professions 86
D.Apprenticeship 87
E.Yellow-Dog Agreements 87
F.Statutes of Frauds 87
Ⅳ.Renewal of the Employment Contract 89
Ⅴ.Misrepresentation 89
Ⅵ.Termination of Employment 89
A.Breach of Contract or Exercise of the Right to Rescind 89
B.Enforcement of Employment Handbooks 93
C.Good Faith and Fair Dealing 94
D.Interference with a Fundamental Individual Privilege or Responsibility Recognized by Public Policy 97
E.Whistleblower Protection 99
F.Collateral Sources of Relief for Wrongfully Dismissed Workers 101
G.Limits on the Right to Quit 104
H.Illness or Injury 105
I.Impossibility of Performance 105
Ⅶ.Notice of Termination 106
Ⅷ.Remedies for Breach of Employment Contracts 107
A.Damages 107
B.Other Remedies 108
3.Special Employment Relations 110
Ⅰ.Seafarers 110
Ⅱ.Government Employees 111
A.Constitutional Rights 111
B.Civil Service Laws 113
CHAPTER 2.RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF THE PARTIES UNDER INDIVIDUAL EMPLOYMENT CONTRACTS 118
1.Express and Implied Terms 118
2.The Employer's Right to the Employee's Work Product 118
Ⅰ.Earnings Generated by the Worker 118
Ⅱ.Interference with the Worker's Devotion to the Employer's Well-Being 119
Ⅲ.Property in Dispute between an Employer and Worker 119
A.Property Found by the Worker 119
B.Worker Inventions 120
C.Worker Creations 120
Ⅳ.Worker's Duty not to Appropriate a Former Employer's Property 122
A.Protection of Trade Secrets 122
B.Covenants Not to Compete with a Former Employer 124
3.The Employer's Responsibility for the Worker's Health,Safety and Property 126
Ⅰ.Protection of tfie Worker 126
A.Common Law 126
B.Statutory Modifications of the Common Law 127
C.Tribunal for Determining Liability and Damages 130
D.Scope of the Employer's Liability 130
Ⅱ.Protection of the Worker's Property, Dignity and Privacy 132
Ⅲ.Employer-supplied Income Protection when a Worker is Unavailable for Work 141
Ⅳ.Retirement Benefits 149
Ⅴ.Employer-financed Health Care Benefits 152
Ⅶ.Regulation of Employer Benefit Plans 154
Ⅶ.Safety and Health Standards 159
4.Employer's Responsibility for the Worker's Wrongdoing 161
5.Worker's Liability for Wrongs Committed in the Course of Employment 162
6.Work Schedules 163
CHAPTER 3.REMUNERATION AND BENEFITS 164
1.Basic Concepts 164
Ⅰ.Usage of Terms 'Salary' and 'Wage' 164
Ⅱ.Rate of Compensation 164
2.Pay 165
Ⅰ.Time when Wage is Due 165
Ⅱ.Compensation in the Form of a Commission 165
Ⅲ.Parent's Compensation of Child for Work Performed 166
Ⅳ.Gratuities 166
Ⅴ.Reimbursement of Expenses 167
Ⅵ.Paid Vacations 167
Ⅶ.Bonuses and Awards 169
Ⅷ.Priority Rights to Wages in Insolvency Proceedings 170
CHAPTER 4.EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY 172
1.Concept 172
2.The Reconstruction Era Civil Rights Acts 173
Ⅰ.Generally 173
Ⅱ.Section 1981 173
Ⅲ.Section 1983 175
3.Title Ⅶ of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 178
Ⅰ.Disparate Treatment Theory 179
Ⅱ.Bona Fide Occupational Qualifications 181
Ⅲ.Affirmative Action 182
Ⅳ.Disparate Impact 184
Ⅴ.Pregnancy Discrimination 186
Ⅵ.Sexual Harassment 187
Ⅶ.Sexual Orientation 189
Ⅷ.National Origin Claims 189
Ⅸ.Religious Discrimination 189
Ⅹ.Retaliation 191
4.The Age Discrimination in Employment Act 192
Ⅰ.Disparate Treatment Theory 193
Ⅱ.Disparate Impact 194
Ⅲ.Retirement Incentives 195
Ⅳ.Waiver 195
5.Americans with Disabilities Act 195
Ⅰ.The Definition of Disability 196
Ⅱ.Qualified Individual with a Disability 198
Ⅲ.Medical Examinations 199
6.The Equal Pay Act 200
7.Protection of Military Reservists and Veterans 202
Part Ⅱ.Collective Labor Relations 203
CHAPTER 1.THE IMPACT OF COLLECTIVE BARGAINING ON WORKER BENEFITS 203
1.The Paramount Importance of Collective Bargaining 203
2.Compensation Comparison between Organized and Unorganized Workers 203
CHAPTER 2.FREEDOM TO ORGANIZE AND OBTAIN MUTUAL AID 206
1.The Right to Engage in or Refrain from Concerted Activity 206
Ⅰ.The Basic Policy of the National Labor Relations Act 206
Ⅱ.Prohibition against Interference with the Right to Organize 207
A.Coercion to Engage in or Refrain from Engaging in Concerted Activity 208
B.Distinguishing between Coercive Expression and Protected Expression 209
2.Preserving Laboratory Conditions for Representation Elections 211
3.Prohibition against Promises or Benefits as an Inducement to Refrain from Exercising Section 7 Rights 213
4.Unlawful Discrimination Based on Union Membership 214
Ⅰ.Generally 214
Ⅱ.Runaway Shops 217
A.Generally 217
B.Termination of Business and Partial Closings 218
Ⅲ.Union Hiring Halls 218
Ⅳ.Union Security and Preferred Status 219
Ⅴ.Remedying Unlawful Discrimination 222
5.Unlawful Interference with Labor Organizations 223
Ⅰ.Employer Domination or Interference 223
Ⅱ.Employer Assistance 226
Ⅲ.Remedial Distinction between Domination and Interference 227
Ⅳ.Limits on Supervisory Participation in a Labor Organization 227
Ⅴ.Recognition of a Minority Union 229
Ⅵ.The Employer's Duty of Neutrality between Competing Unions 231
6.Balancing the Employer's Property Interests against the Workers'Statutory Rights 236
Ⅰ.Generally 236
Ⅱ.Employees have a Limited Right to Organize Fellow Workers on the Employer's Premises 236
Ⅲ.Circumstances under Which Non-employees Can Organize on Employer's Premises 238
Ⅳ.Union Access to Worker Names and Addresses 240
7.Legal Restrictions on Obtaining Support from Others 241
Ⅰ.Organizational and Recognitional Picketing 241
Ⅱ.Prohibited Secondary and Sympathetic Activities 245
A.Constitutional Protection of Appeals for Support from the Public or from Sympathetic Employers 245
B.Limitations on Appeals for Support or Sympathy 249
8.Access to the NLRB and Other Tribunals 264
CHAPTER 3.LABOR UNIONS, EMPLOYEE ASSOCIATIONS AND EMPLOYER ORGANIZATIONS 266
1.Worker Organizations 266
Ⅰ.Unions 266
Ⅱ.Employee Associations 268
Ⅲ.AFL-CIO 269
2.Regulation of Internal Union Affairs 271
Ⅰ.Basic Union Structure 271
A.The Local Union 271
B.Regional Divisions 273
C.The National Organization 274
Ⅱ.The Law of Private Associations 275
Ⅲ.Regulation of Internal Union Affairs under the LMRDA 276
A.The Right to Vote 277
B.Freedom of Expression 278
C.Freedom of Assembly and Other Internal Management 280
D.Right to Sue the Union 280
E.Right to Full and Fair Hearing 282
F.Union's Duty to Inform Members 283
G.Right to Local Self-Determination 284
Ⅳ.Restraints upon the Use of Union Funds 286
A.Union Funds Used for Union Elections 286
B.Union Funds Used for Political Activities 287
C.Other Expenditures of Union Funds 291
Ⅴ.The Union's Duty of Fair Representation 291
A.NLRB Enforcement of the Duty of Fair Representation 292
B.Private Suit for Enforcement of the Duty of Fair Representation 295
C.Standard of Conduct under the Duty of Fair Representation 297
3.Employer Associations 299
Ⅰ.National Organizations 299
A.Generally 299
B.Chamber of Commerce 301
C.National Association of Manufacturers 302
Ⅱ.Multi-employer Bargaining 302
A.The Process 302
B.Antitrust Limitations 304
CHAPTER 4.WORKER PARTICIPATION IN MANAGEMENT THROUGH COLLECTIVE BARGAINING 307
1.Written, Comprehensive Agreements of Specific Duration 307
2.The Duty to Bargain Collectively 307
Ⅰ.Mandatory and Non-Mandatory Topics for Collective Bargaining 308
Ⅱ.Maintaining the Status Quo until there is a Bargaining Impasse 309
Ⅲ.Notice of Intention to Modify Collective Agreement 310
Ⅳ.Resort to Pressure Tactics as Part of the Bargaining Process 310
3.Regulation of Bargaining Table Conduct 311
4.Bargaining Practices 314
Ⅰ.Reliance on Work Stoppages 314
Ⅱ.Sequence of Events in Collective Bargaining 315
Ⅲ.Strike Insurance and Other Mutual Aid 317
5.Bargaining in the Public Sector 319
Ⅰ.State and Local Employment 319
Ⅱ.Federal Employment 321
A.Postal Employees 321
B.Federal Workers Other than Postal Employees 322
6.The Impact of the NLRB upon the Bargaining Structure 324
Ⅰ.Generally 324
Ⅱ.Examples of Bargaining Structures 327
Ⅲ.NLRB's Power to Stabilize Bargaining Unit Structure 329
Ⅳ.Bargaining Unit Size 331
7.Bargaining Structure in Public Employment 331
Ⅰ.State and Local Employment 331
Ⅱ.Federal Employment 333
8.Scope and Coverage of Collective Agreements 334
Ⅰ.Duration 334
A.Length 334
B.Automatic Renewal and Intervals between Contracts 335
C.Reopener Clauses 336
Ⅱ.Parties to the Collective Agreement 337
A.Generally 337
B.Change of Union 337
C.Change in Enterprise Ownership 338
Ⅲ.Union Security Arrangements 343
A.Closed Shop, Union Shop, Agency Shop, OtherVariations 343
B.Hiring Halls 346
C.Dues Check-off 346
D.Public Sector Union Security Provisions 347
Ⅳ.Contractual Status of Probationary Workers 348
Ⅴ.Wages 348
A.Generally 348
B.Scheduled Wage Increases 348
C.Cost-of-living Increases 349
D.Merit Increases 349
E.Pay Differences Based on Working Conditions 349
F.Work Incentive Schemes 350
Ⅵ.Work Schedules and Premium Pay 350
A.Work Hours and Schedules 350
B.Work Shifts 351
C.Meal Periods 351
D.Rest Periods 351
E.Holidays and Other Leaves of Absence 352
F.Vacations 353
G.Premium Pay 355
Ⅶ.Insurance and Pension Benefits 356
A.Life, Accident and Health Insurance 356
B.Negotiated Retirement Benefits 357
Ⅷ.Job Security 358
A.Restraints upon Disciplinary Action 358
B.Seniority 359
C.Transfer of Operations, Training and Retraining 362
Ⅸ.Paid Sick Leave 365
Ⅹ.Working Conditions and Safety 365
Ⅺ.Strikes and Lock-outs - Peace Clauses 366
Ⅻ.Conflict Resolution Machinery 368
A.Grievance Procedures 368
B.Arbitration 369
ⅩⅢ.Management and Union Rights and Zipper Provisions 370
A.Management Rights 370
B.Union Rights 370
C.Zipper Provisions 371
ⅩⅣ.Pay without Work - Featherbedding 372
9.Effect of Bankruptcy on the Collective Agreement 373
10.Alternative Methods of Worker Participation 375
CHAPTER 5.INDUSTRIAL ACTION 377
1.Right to Strike 377
Ⅰ.Generally 377
Ⅱ.Public Employees 380
Ⅲ.Rights and Risks of Private Sector Strikers 382
A.Right to Replace Strikers 382
B.Rights of Strikers and Returning Strikers 385
C.Strikes in Violation of Statutory Notice Requirements 386
D.Strikes without Union Approval 387
E.Peace Clauses - Waiver of the Right to Strike 389
F.Work Stoppages due to Unsafe or Unhealthy Conditions 391
G.Striker Misconduct 392
H.Partial Strikes and Specially Timed Strikes 396
I.Unlawful Strikes 397
J.Injunction against Stoppages in Emergency Circumstances 398
2.Right to Refrain from Striking 398
3.Employer's Right to Lock out Workers 401
4.Appeals for Sympathetic Support 404
Part Ⅲ.Machinery for Enforcing Labor Laws 407
CHAPTER 1.THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS ACT 407
1.The Structure 407
2.The NRLB's Jurisdiction 409
3.Determining whether a Union is the Exclusive Bargaining Agent 410
Ⅰ.NLRB Representation Proceeding 410
Ⅱ.Alternatives to NLRB Election Proceedings 416
Ⅲ.Removal of Union's Representational Status 417
4.Unfair Labor Practice Procedures 419
Ⅰ.Unfair Labor Practice Charge and Complaint 420
Ⅱ.Hearing 421
Ⅲ.Unfair Labor Practice Remedies 421
Ⅳ.NLRB Review of Hearing Decision 423
Ⅴ.Judicial Review in Unfair Labor Practice Cases 424
Ⅵ.Case Handling Efficiency 426
5.Injunction against Misconduct 427
Ⅰ.Generally 427
Ⅱ.Section 10(j) Injunction 427
Ⅲ.Injunctions against Alleged Unlawful Union Pressure on Neutral Employers 428
6.Determination of Disputes Concerning Group Work Assignments 429
7.Money Damages for Unlawful Secondary Activity 431
CHAPTER 2.LMRA's PREEMPTION OF SUITS AFFECTING COLLECTIVE ACTIVITIES 433
1.The Preemption Concept 433
2.Suits to Enforce Collective Agreements 434
3.Suits to Remedy a Breach of the Duty of Fair Representation 436
4.Other Court Actions 437
CHAPTER 3.RESOLUTION OF DISPUTES THAT THREATEN WELFARE 438
CHAPTER 4.FEDERAL MEDIATION AND CONCILIATION SERVICE 440
CHAPTER 5.ENFORCEMENT OF PROHIBITED UNION - MANAGEMENT TRANSACTIONS AND STATUTORY PROTECTION OF UNION MEMBERS 443
1.Office of Labor - Management Services 443
Ⅰ.Enforcement of Regulations Governing the Election of Union Officials 443
Ⅱ.Enforcement of Restrictions on Union Trusteeships 444
Ⅲ.Enforcement of Information Reporting Requirements 444
Ⅳ.Investigative Power of the Department of Labor 444
Ⅴ.Enforcement of the Employee's Right to See the Collective Agreement 445
2.Criminal Sanctions and Other Remedies 445
Ⅰ.LMRDA Violations 445
Ⅱ.LMRA Violations 445
Ⅲ.Other Statutes 446
3.Public Information Regarding Union Activities 446
4.Private Actions by Union Members 447
CHAPTER 6.RAILWAY LABOR ACT ENFORCEMENT MACHINERY 448
1.Generally 448
2.National Mediation Board 448
Ⅰ.Determining a Union's Representational Status 448
Ⅱ.Unfair Labor Practice Proceedings 450
Ⅲ.'Major Disputes' - NMB Process for Changing Terms and Conditions of Employment 450
Ⅳ.Emergency Dispute Machinery under the RLA 452
Ⅴ.'Minor Disputes' - Resolving Grievances Respecting the Application of Terms and Conditions of Rail and Air Industry Employment 452
A.National Railroad Adjustment Board 453
B.Special Boards of Adjustment 454
C.Public Law 89-456 Boards 454
D.Enforcement of Minor Dispute Awards 454
CHAPTER 7.ARBITRATION OF DISPUTES ARISING UNDER COLLECTIVE AGREEMENTS 456
1.Generally 456
2.Tribunal Formats 456
3.Selecting an Ad Hoc Arbitrator 457
4.Costs, Efficiency, and Utilization 459
5.The Arbitration Hearing 460
CHAPTER 8.REGULATION OF COLLECTIVE REPRESENTATION OF FEDERAL WORKERS 462
1.Postal Workers 462
2.Other Federal Workers 462
Ⅰ.Federal Labor Relations Authority 462
Ⅱ.Federal Service Impasses Panel 463
Ⅲ.Grievance-arbitration Process 464
CHAPTER 9.ENFORCEMENT OF FEDERAL WAGE-HOUR LAWS 465
1.Generally 465
2.Setting Minimum Wages 466
3.Back Pay Settlements 467
4.FLSA Enforcement by the Worker 467
5.FLSA Enforcement by the Department of Labor 468
6.Enforcement of Government Contractor and Grantee Wage Laws 469
CHAPTER 10.ENFORCEMENT OF THE OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT 471
1.Generally 471
2.Establishment of Health and Safety Standards 472
3.Federal Enforcement of Health and Safety Standards 473
Ⅰ.Investigation 473
Ⅱ.Civil Fines and Abatement Orders 475
A.Citations and Notification of Proposed Penalties 475
B.Appeal to the OSHRC 477
C.Judicial Review of the OSHRC Decision 477
D.Constitutionality of Civil Penalty Procedure 478
Ⅲ.Injunctive Relief 478
Ⅳ.Criminal Sanctions 478
4.State Regulations of Occupational Safety and Health 479
CHAPTER 11.ENFORCEMENT OF EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY 481
1.Equal Employment Opportunity Commission 481
Ⅰ.Commission 481
Ⅱ.General Counsel of the EEOC 482
Ⅲ.EEOC Regulations and Guidelines 482
Ⅳ.Processing a Charge of Discrimination under Title Ⅶ and the ADA 482
A.Filing a Charge of Discrimination 482
B.Suit by the EEOC 484
C.Suit by an Individual 484
D.Remedies 485
E.Federal Sector Procedures under Title Ⅶ and the Rehabilitation Act 486
Ⅴ.Processing a Charge of Discrimination under the ADEA 487
A.Filing a Charge of Discrimination 487
B.Remedies 487
Ⅵ.Alternative Dispute Resolution 487
CHAPTER 12.ENFORCEMENT OF THE WORKER ADJUSTMENT AND RETRAINING ACT 492
CHAPTER 13.ENFORCEMENT OF THE FAMILY AND MEDICAL LEAVE ACT 493
Part Ⅳ.Extraterritoriality (Choice of Law) 495
CHAPTER 1.PROBLEMS OF EXTRATERRITORIALITY AMONG THE STATES 495
CHAPTER 2.THE LAW OF OTHER NATIONS APPLIED IN THE US 498
CHAPTER 3.APPLYING US LAW BEYOND ITS BORDERS 499
CHAPTER 4.APPLYING US LAW TO FOREIGN NATIONALS WITHIN ITS BORDERS 501
CHAPTER 5.US COURT APPLICATION OF THE LAW OF NATIONS 505
Table of Cases 507
Index 521